| Late Kingdom of Egypt | |||||
| Kemet | |||||
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| Capital | Bubastis (975-716 BC) Meroe (716-664 BC) | ||||
| Languages | Ancient Egyptian | ||||
| Religion | Ancient Kemetism | ||||
| Demonym | Egyptian | ||||
| Government | Absolute Monarchy Egypt, 975 BC | ||||
| Pharaoh | |||||
| • | 975-953 BC | Shoshenq I | |||
| • | 690-664 BC | Taharqa | |||
| • | 611-596 BC | Necho II | |||
| • | 570-526 BC | Ahmose II | |||
| Vizier | |||||
| • | c.900 BC | Pinedjem | |||
| • | c.550 BC | Psamtek-Meryneit | |||
| Historical Era | Iron Age | ||||
| • | Egyptian Civil War | 975 BC | |||
| • | Sack of Gezer | 980 BC | |||
| • | Battle of Qarqar | 853 BC | |||
| • | Battle of Megiddio | 610 BC | |||
| • | Battle of Pelusium | 525 BC | |||
| Population | |||||
| • | est.c.600 BC | ~4 million | |||
| Currency | Deben (gold, grain) | ||||
The Late Kingdom of Egypt, also known as the Fifth Age in Egypt, was a period of Egyptian history between the collapse of the New Kingdom until the eventual conquest by the Achamenid Empire under Cambyses in 525 BC. Various dates have been used for this period, as it was a late addition to the standard Egyptian chronology which normally ended with the New Kingdom. This period is marked initially by internal chaos and disorder, as Egypt suffered similarly to other civilizations in the wake of the Bronze Age Collapse. Both Nubians and Assyrians invaded and dominated parts of Egypt during this period, particularly in the 8th-7th centuries BC. Eventually, both of these forces were removed by Pharaoh Necho II around 610 BC, before his 26th Dynasty was eventually conquered by the Persians.
This period is called the Fifth Age due to its placement in history, roughly synchronized with the era of the Divided Kingdom of Israel and Judah. Due to Israel's alliance with Pharaoh Orsokon IV, and later Judah's antagonism with Necho II, both kingdoms suffered the wrath of the Babylonian Empire from which Egypt survived. However, it was shortly after the return from exile under Cyrus the Great that Egypt was eventually destroyed, ending the Pharaonic era.
History[]
Twenty-Second Dynasty[]
Pharaoh Shoshenq I (Shishak)
The 22nd Dynasty was established by a family from the Chiefs of Ma, the same rulers who briefly took control over Egypt during the 21st Dynasty. Shoshenq I (975-953 BC) wrestled for control over Lower Egypt, resulting in the climactic and bloody Ancient Egyptian Civil War from 975-967 BC. Even during this conflict, Shoshenq pursued a very aggressive foreign policy, re-establishing Egypt's military presence in the Levant. In general, the 22nd Dynasty ruled peacefully within the first hundred years, but eventually fell apart to rival dynasties from Libya and Kush.
Under the reign of Takelot I (885-872 BC), further Libyan invasions established the rival 23rd Dynasty at Heracropolis, thus putting Egypt in its most divided state since the Hyksos. Nonetheless, his son Osorkon III (872-837 BC) continued the earlier policies of aggressive foreign policies, especially in trying to match the rising Neo-Assyrian Empire. Still, after Osorkon died in 837 BC, Egypt had effectively split completely, with his son-in-law Shoshenq III continuing to rule Lower Egypt. This was even further disrupted under Shoshenq V (778-740 BC), as the invasion of Kush established a permanent Nubian dynasty over all of Upper Egypt.
By the reign of Osorkon IV (730-716 BC), the Dynasty was facing threats from all sides. The war with the Nubian 25th Dynasty was falling back, while the Assyrian Empire continued to expand across Levant. By 720 BC, Osorkon had relinquished much territory as vassals of both empires. After he died in 716 BC, Kush and Assyria would divide what remained.
Libyan Kings[]
Pharaoh Bakenranef (Bocchoris)
Established as a rival dynasty in Upper Egypt by Libyan invasions, the 23rd Dynasty broke off from from the 22nd around 880 BC. Harsiese was proclaimed as "Lord of Thebes", but it wasn't until Takelot III in 840 BC that they took the title of Pharaoh, largely unrecognized. During this same reign, however, rival branches of the family already started falling apart into in-fighting, not finally reunited until Osorkon V in 798 BC. This dynasty itself was disrupted by the further invasion of the Kushite Kings, and by 755 BC they lost control over everything except the city of Thebes.
In general, both the 23rd and 24th Dynasties are fairly minor, in both their maximum extent, depth of control over their region, and influence on Egyptian culture as a whole. As a hope of re-establishing order in Lower Egypt, Tefnakht I managed to subdue all the other city-states in the area around Sais, creating the 24th Dynasty in 732 BC. Also known as Tnephachthus, this was the first dynasty of Saite rulers in Egypt. In spite of consistent defeats by the 25th Dynasty, Tefnakht continued to push north and east, sending many military expeditions into Sinai. From his personal biographer, we know he had a spartan living, and cursed the founders of Egypt for making civilization so comfortable.
Bakenranef, his son, succeeded him as Libyan king of Sais from 725-720 BC. Also known as Bocchoris, he was known by his own biographer as having a particularly uncomely appearance. He established many important laws in Egypt, and was generally known to be a very wise and sagely administrator. According to his biography, in 725 BC the Apis Bull spoke a prophesy that Egypt would be conquered by the Assryian, which by this time had already conquered most of Levant. In 721 BC, the Great Theban Plague severely weakened the Dynasty as a whole, allowing the nation to be overrun by the 25th Dynasty from Kush. Bakenranef was captured by Pharaoh Shabaka, and subsequently executed.
Nubian Dynasty[]
Sphinx depiction of Taharqa (Sethos)
The Kingdom of Kush, also known as the Kingdom of Sheba, had existed parallel to Egypt since 1064 BC, when it broke off from the 21st Dynasty. Since then, it had steadily adapted both Egypt's technology and culture, eventually being able to surpass them in the 8th century BC. Kashta, the first Kushite king to establish permanent control over Upper Egypt, married the daughter of Osorkon V from the 23rd Dynasty, thus establishing legitimacy for claiming the title of Pharaoh.
In general, the 25th Dynasty was one of Egypt's strongest dynasties of the Late Kingdom, and at one point extended control over the entire region. Pharaoh Piye (748-721 BC) initiated what is known as the "Amonan Jihad" against the 24th Dynasty, scoring important victories against Pharaoh Tefnakht I of Thebes. This conflict was completed by Shabaka, also known as Sabacos (721-706 BC), who had Bakenranef executed in 720 BC. Lower Egypt was much harder to control, as Piye himself died fighting off the Assyrians who also encountered Osorkon IV.
Shabaka was known as a wise and fair ruler, and worked hard to revive Egyptian culture that had been forgotten in the previous chaos. He completed Kush's consolidation of control over Egypt, creating the most northern states as Kushite vassals. In 706 BC, he abdicated in favor of his nephew Shebitku. Both Shebitku had Taharqa, who succeeded him in 690 BC, took the brunt of Sennacharib's invasion of Egypt at the end of the 8th century BC.
Taharqa, Shebitku's uncle, was also known as Sethos. Having assumed power over most of the military, siezed control over Nubia and Egypt as soon as Shebitku died. According to his official biography, his rule was legitimized by a falcon miraculously landing on his head, being a sign from Horus. However, as soon as he became king he disbanded most of Egypt's Arabian mercenaries, so as to prevent another coup as his. He continued the revivalist policies of his predecessors, particularly in innovating methods of farming.
Esarhaddon of Assyria, who sacked Memphis
Exterior threats, however were inevitable. The 26th Dynasty, the second line of Saite rulers, existed parallel to his reign. He initially was able to keep Assyrian invasions by Eserhaddon at bay, but it ultimately ended with the Assyrian Sack of Memphis in 671 BC. At that point, the Saite Kings successfully took control over Lower Egypt, forcing the Kushites to the south. Tantamani, the last king (664-656 BC), ruled only Upper Egypt until he was ousted by Psamtik I.
Twenty-Sixth Dynasty[]
The 26th Dynasty, established as Saite rulers, was a final return to united, Egyptian rule, as well as the last dynasty in Ancient Egyptian history. Its first ruler, Tefnakht II, ruled in opposition to the Nubian Dynasty from 690-678 BC. Necho I ruled from 672-664 BC, contemporary to the Assyrian invasion of Lower Egypt by Eserhaddon. Necho was appointed king of Egypt by the Assyrians, establishing Lower Egypt as a vassal of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Necho was unsuccessful to push the Nubians out of Lower Egypt, but this was completed by Psamtik I in 656 BC. Psamtik's conquest of Upper Egypt was greatly helped by a supply of Ethiopian mercenaries, mostly out of Kushite deserters of the military.
Early Rulers[]
Psamtik I (664-611 BC) was also known as Psammitichos, and although he ruled Egypt as an Assyrian vassal, he nonetheless saw Egypt to its last golden age. As Necho I died in battle against Tantanami, there was a brief interregnum among the Saites. According to Psamtik's biography, his reign was foretold by the Oracle of Amun, who said the next king of Egypt would drink wine from a bowl of bronze. This he did unknowingly by drinking out of his helmet, when no cup was available.
Pharaoh Necho II
He was known as a great scholar and linguist, and was the first the theorize which language was oldest in the world. His hypothesis, of the oldest language originating near Armenia, is very close to the modern consensus. He was also the first to create an exact measurement for the depth of the Nile, and similar reforms created a form of standard weights and measurements in Egypt. The Nubian deserters of the Kushite military Psamtik established as an enclave in Upper Egypt. Psamtik used his position within Assyria to his advantage, specifically by helping them besiege Ashdod, one of the last remaining strongholds of the Philistines. It took over two years to break from 637-635 BC.
Late in Psamtik I's reign, the Assyrian Empire began to collapse in favor of their former vassals, primarily the Neo-Babylonian Empire. The final crushing blow was carried out by his successor, Necho II (611-596 BC). Necho also continued to enlighten Egypt for the new, Classical Age, as done in the rest of the dynasty. He sent an expedition of Phoneticians to circumnavigate Africa, headed by the explorer Pummary, in 601 BC. His voyage from 601-598 BC was carefully documented in the Itinerary of Pummary, of which the oldest copies date to 589 BC. Necho II also completed the Canal of the Pharaohs, a great feat of engineering that fell into disuse until the advent of the Suez Canal.
Psamtik II reigned from 596-590 BC. He was best known for his wars against Nubia, crushing and defacing remnants of the 25th Dynasty. Apries, who was also called Hophra, reigned from 590-570 BC. After Apries was humiliated in a war against Libya, all of Egypt rose in revolt against him. Ahmose, commander of the military, was proclaimed king at this time, throwing Egypt into a civil war from 572-568 BC. Apries gained much outside support from Babylon, who supplied many troops as mercenaries. At the ensuing Battle of Momemphis in 568 BC, Apries was killed by a stray shot, leaving Ahmose as king.
Amasis and Pelusium[]
Pharaoh Ahmose II (Amasis)
Ahmose II, better known as Amasis, ruled from 570-526 BC. According to his biography, he was originally distrusted by the general population of Egyptians, particularly because of his common background. However, he quickly was able to prove himself both by his brilliant administration and general personal wisdom. He greatly loved parties also, which likewise pacified many people. He also made reforms to the law-code of Egypt similar to the 24th Dynasty. He also completed the navy of Egypt started by Necho II, and used it to invade and conquer Cyprus.
In general, Amasis made Egypt wealthier and more prosperous than anyone else of this era, if not all of Egyptian history. He plated some temples in Egypt with gold, and literature of science and art also flourished at this time. He made alliances with many foreign nations, particularly those that threatened Egypt before, including Libya, Babylon, and Lydia. Among his harem was another former salve, Rhodopis of Thrace.
After the Achaemenid Empire conquered all of Babylon and Lydia, Egypt too was forced to capitulate. In 528 BC, Cambyses of Persia demanded Egypt submit a daughter of the Pharaoh for him to marry. In order to preserve ancient tradition, Amasis did not give up his daughter, but gave a duplicate instead. When Cambyses found out he had been tricked, he prepared his military to invade and conquer the nation. This entry, from Amasis' official biography, could be interpreted as propaganda from the Achaemenids, as Cambyses was already known as an ambitious expansionist.
As soon as Psamtik III was made king in 526 BC, there was rain in Thebes. This was considered a bad omen, and the climactic shift may also have aided the Persian advance. First Psamtik was crushed at the Battle of Pelusium, then captured in the Siege of Memphis in 525 BC, ending his reign of six months. He was imprisoned by the occupation force in Egypt for a month, until Cambyses learned that a revolt in favor of Psamtik was being planned. Before he could be found out, Psamtik drank poison, thus ending the long history of the Pharonic era.
Culture[]
Example of archaizing art from the Late Kingdom, copying the style of Old Kingdom art with new elements
The first phase of the Late Kingdom, under the 22nd Dynasty, was very pious towards their respective offices, stemming from the dynastic union between the Pharaohs and High Priests of Amun. The later dynasties, particularly the 25th and 26th Dynasties, had a culture of art and literature focused on "archaizing", or harking back to styles of art from throughout Egypt's long history. This period also saw a gradual adoption of Hellenic culture and science, culminated with the reign of Ahmose II (570-526 BC).
Although this period varies wildly between phases of peace and chaos, divided and mostly-unified phases of politics, its history is the most solidly-established of the Pharoanic era. Being the most recent phase of Egypt's ancient history, documentation is best preserved over the ages. The Egyptians also adopted traditions of regularly-recorded history from their neighbors, which didn't exist in previous dynasties. Finally, Egypt's interaction with foreign nations such as Greece and Levant establishes more fixed synchronization, albeit not always a time in Egypt's favor as a nation.
Relations with Israel and Judah[]
Twenty-Second Dynasty[]
Thanks to the efforts of King Solomon, the House of David enjoyed a treaty of alliance with the 21st Dynasty since 1013 BC. After the 21st Dynasty was overthrown in the Egyptian Civil War, however, the situation became reversed. Jeroboam ben Nabat started his rebellion against Solomon around 980 BC, and quickly fled to Egypt for asylum.
Shoshenq I, (975-953 BC) also known as Shishak, established the 22nd Dynasty in Tanis, and immediately worked to expand Egypt's influence to the Levant once again. He harbored Jeroboam until after King Solomon's death, then sent him as a supported candidate for King of Israel. Jeroboam's successful rebellion created the Northern Kingdom of Israel, but the tribes in Judah around Jerusalem still followed the house of David under Rehoboam. Israel and Judah would continue in almost constant war until 944 BC, and Egypt during this time supported their ally in Israel.
King Rehoboam of Judah
In 974 BC, Shoshenq invaded Judah with a full force, and sacked the city of Jerusalem. He took many treasures that existed in King Solomon's temple, including 26 gold shields inscribed with Hebrew. These shields were found in Tanis in the mid 17th century, and in 1996 was returned to the State of Levant. Shoshenq's campaign went as far as Byblos; however, he failed to conquer Judah has he had intended.
The 22nd Dynasty of Egypt would keep an array of alliances in the Middle East since the time of Shoshenq, particularly as a buffer against the growing Neo-Assyrian Empire. In 853 BC, Osorkon III organized a coalition of twelve kings in Syria to rescue Ben-Hadad II, King of Aram, as he was being overrun by Shalmaneser III of Assyria. Jehoahaz ben Jehu, king of Israel, responded in earnest by sending 2,000 chariots and 10,000 soldiers commanded by his general Ahab, being the majority of his army. The ensuing Battle of Qarqar proved indecisive, but much of the coalition's forces were lost due to attrition. This particularly left Israel vulnerable from raids by Aram, which continued for the rest of Jehoahaz's reign.
After a devastating earthquake created anarchy in Judah and Israel in 785 BC, the Northern Kingdom of Israel became severely weakened. By 762 BC, it became a vassal of the Assyrian Empire under Tiglath-Pileser III. In 725 BC, King Hoshea of Israel led a rebellion against them, and reached out to Israel's old alliance with Tanis. Osorkon IV, also called So, initially accepted the alliance, but backed out in the eleventh hour out of fear of the Assyrians. In that same year, Shalmaneser V besieged Samaria. It didn't fall until 722 BC, under the reign of Sargon II, but still Osorkon didn't come to its aid. All of the Israelites in the Northern Kingdom were taken away, leaving only Judah behind.
Later Dynasties[]
King Hezekiah of Judah (727-699 BC) tremendously improved their international relations, even as Israel was being destroyed. The wealth associated with the piety of Jerusalem became well-known in Egypt, and many slaves serving Bakenranef (also called Bocchoris) deserted to join Judea.
The armies of Sennacherib destroyed by an Angel
The 25th Dynasty of Kushite kings, being bitter enemies of Assyria, was quick to make alliance with the Kingdom of Judah. In 714 BC, King Sennacherib of Assyria laid siege to Jerusalem, commanded by his general Rabshakah. King Hezekiah of Judah extended an alliance with Taharqa, king of Kush (also called Sethos), for help. This time, Egypt responded promptly, forcing Assyria into war with both Egypt and Judah. Exactly how they achieved victory is disputed between the Egyptian accounts and the Bible, but both report that Sennacherib's army was miraculously destroyed, forcing him to retreat back to Assyria in 711 BC.
The 25th Dynasty and the Kingdom of Judah remained relatively friendly from this point onwards, even after King Manasseh made Judah an Assyrian vassal. However, things started turning for the worse in the 26th Dynasty. As the Assyrian empire was crumbling before the Babylonians, Pharaoh Necho II (611-596 BC) had an ambitious goal of restoring the empire Egypt had in the New Kingdom. He first invaded Judah, but his ultimate goal was to crush the last remnant of Assyria that existed in Syria. King Josiah of Judah fought Necho at the Battle of Meggiddio in June 611 BC, where Josiah was ultimately killed.
Necho pressed on to fight Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon at the Battle of Karkamish, and returned three months later. In September, Necho deposed Jehoahaz, the successor of Josiah, and took him back to Egypt in captivity. Ultimately, however, Necho was not able to stand up to Babylon, which quickly absorbed the rest of the Assyrians. In 608 BC, King Jehoiakim of Judah became vassal of the Babylonian Empire after Nebuchadnezzar invaded, offiicially wresting control away from Egypt.
King Josiah killed by Necho II at the Battle of Megiddo
In 591 BC, Psamtik II hoped to insite the Babylonian vassals in Levant to stage a mass rebellion against the empire. Zedekiah, the King of Judah, participated in this rebellion, in spite of many warnings against it. Nebuchadnezzar II besieged Jerusalem that year, and began massively deporting the Jews back to Babylon. In 588 BC, Pharaoh Apries (also called Hophra) sent his military to Jerusalem as an attempt to break the siege. However, as a chronic problem with Apries, he was crushed by the Babylonians, who ultimately razed Jerusalem to the ground. Nonetheless, Apries harboured many Jews fleeing from Jerusalem in Egypt, which were led by the Prophet Jeremiah.
With both Israel and Judah destroyed, Egypt had no more relations with the Jews after this point. However, Jewish literature forever immortalized their memories of struggles with Egypt, stretching all the way back to the Exodus. The prophetic books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel all spoke of coming judgment on Egypt at the hands of both Babylon and Persia. Babylon's invasion of Egypt, as foretold by Ezekiel, occurred in 567 BC during Egypt's last civil war.
Relations with Greece[]
In the latter half of this period, Greece was steadily moving out of its archaic period and into the Classical Era, the high point of the Iron Age. Their growing interests in history and culture made them fascinated by the long history of Egypt. As seen in the New Kingdom, Greece ultimately owed most of its art and culture from Egypt's great and long influence. However, by the end of the Late Kingdom this had reversed. Now, especially as Egypt was entering the modern world, they had to adapt to the growing science and art from other cultures, particularly Greece.
Egypt's entrance into the Classical Age started in earnest with the reign of Psamtik I, (also called Psammetichos) who reunited Egypt for the last time at the start of the 26th Dynasty. Psamtik's military campaigns to keep Egypt unified were supplemented by mercenaries from all across the Greek world, and these mercenaries eventually became standard practice among the Egyptian military. Psamtik was the first to establish Greek colonies in Egypt, as a home for this military. Psamtik I started to introduce Greek literature into Egypt, and he was the first to start a tradition of having official biographers for each Pharah, which is a tradition that continued down to Amasis.
Psamtik II (596-590 BC) was the first Pharaoh to send competition in the Panhellenic Olympics, as a way of proving Egyptian physique as equal to the Greeks. Apries (590-570 BC), also called Hophra, was well-known by the Seven Sages of Greece, and he first recorded the Eclipse of Thales in 585 BC. However, it was by grief against the proliferation of Greek mercenaries that Apries was overthrown.
Under Amasis[]
Rhodopis and Amasis
Ahmose II (570-526 BC), better known as Amasis, was probably the best-known Pharaoh in Classical Greek sources. He was known as a "Lover of Greeks", and vastly improved Egypt's relationship within the Greek world. Solon, the archon and lawgiver of Athens, visited Egypt among his travels, and was warmly received. Solon also read about the archives of the Predynastic era, including the Egyptian account of the Flood and Tower of Babel. As a show of Egypt's vast wealth, Amasis sent aid to repair the Oracle of Delphi in Greece, treating it as a temple of Set outside of Egypt.
He officially centralized the Greek settlements in Egypt, now known as the city of Naucritis. Among the people settled in Naucritis was Rhodopis, a Thracian slave who was friends with the sage Aesop. According to the official biography of Amasis, he initially fell in love with Rhodopis, being also from a humble background, but was unable to find where she lived. At last, a falcon deposited a set of sandals with Amasis, as a sign from Horus that Rhodopis was near. They married shortly after, although she did not become a particularly notable wife.
Among the foreign relations Amasis made, he particularly kept peaceful with Nabonidus, the King of Babylon, as well as Croesus the King of Lydia. Amasis and Croesus both had a passion for the spread of Greek knowledge, and used their wealth jointly to this end. Amasis also established an alliance with Polycrates, the tyrant of Samos, and enemy of Pythagoras. As soon as Amasis died in 526 BC, Cambyses began his campaign to conquer all of Egypt, ending the brief reign of Pharaoh Psamtik III and the Pharonic era in general. During this same campaign, Polycrates was overthrown by a coalition of Greek democracies, being of the last tyrants to fall.
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