Passants, cette terre est libre / Vorübergehende, dieses Land ist frei.
(From billboard posted in a Liberty Pole along the Rhine and in Mainz. Later the official motto of Hannover-Westphalia)
Niemand ist mehr Sklave, als der sich für frei hält, ohne es zu sein. (Die Wahlverwandtschaften, Johannes Goethe)
Wir handeln, wie wir müssen. So lasst uns das Notwendige, mit Würde, mit festem Schritte tun. (Wallensteins Tod II,2 / Wallenstein, Friedrich Schiller)
Marshall of the Republic Lazare Hoche. Commander-in-chief of the Army of the Rhine. Victor of the Rhine and chief promoter of the Confederation of the Rhine
Germania or Germany during and after the Revolutionary Wars changed its political makeup in the establishment and merger of new states. The first consequence of the revolutionary wars was the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. in its place a more effective, but with fewer members, the Confederation of the Rhine, was formed. It also marked the surge of new regional powers outside this alliance such as Prussia, Austria and Saxony.
However, the tensions between liberalism (Rhenania) and absolutism/conservatism (Prussia) would not be completed settled down and the spread of the ideas German nationalism in its liberal, romantic or authoritarian variants would led to the German Revolutions.
The Revolutionary Wars in Germany[]
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The main stages of the Revolution Wars in Germany are: Campaign for the Defense of the Republic and the occupation of Flanders and Dutch Republic. The republic of Mainz simultaneously proclaimed by local German republicans. Mainz was fraternally helped (occupied) by the advancing French armies under the command of Lazare Hoche, the Victor of the Rhine[1]. Several military campaigns through to the Elbe River Prussian and Austrian armies. Bavaria settles for peace and alliance. In 1805, the Holy Roman Empire (HRE) is proclaimed as dissolved by Hoche, a month later Francis II renounced to his title as Holy Roman Emperor dissolving the HRE.
The Despotism of freedom (Despotismus der Freiheit 1805-1807) that consisted in the reorganization of occupied Germany by French Commissioners and local German revolutionaries. It also marks the start of Terror in Germany. The Rhenanian and Mainz republics are firmly established as the first Modellstaat later followed by the the process of Reformstaaten in the rest of the German states. Saxony, a former Electorate and now Kingdom, allies with France and gives passage for the mobilization toward Poland-Lithuania. It also includes the French intervention of Switzerland (later the Helvetic Republic).
The Campaign against the Second Coalition. The battle of Magdeburg establishes a de facto limit of French occupation, to the West of the Elbe river. The Peace of Paris of 1805 is signed and leads to the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine.
The Northern Campaign reopens hostilities between France and Britain. The creation of the United Kingdom Kingdom of Denmark, Sweden and Norway — establishing the short-lived Scandinavian Republic. British Navy and Marines fight along the North Sea, the Baltic and Jutland defeating French and German revolutionary armies and navy.
A joint French-German-Scandinavian expedition pushes a military action to the north of the Baltic into the Neva river were a Novgorod Republic is proclaimed. In less than a year it is reoccupied by Russia, dissolved and its leaders are either executed or exiled.
The Third Coalition (Russia, Prussia and Britain) open the Elbe front against France and allied German States.
The Southern campaign against Austria ends in the Battle of Innsbruck were the French Armies assisted by troops from Italy and Germany defeat the Austrian-Prussian Army, leading to the armistice of Salzburg. However this displacement of the French Army of Italy would open an offensive by the British Army in Italy and along the Dutch and Flemish lands.
The Agreement of Stockholm prevented a major escalation into a full war between the United Kingdom and Prussia over the former territories of the Swedish Pomerania and the duchies of Mecklenburg. The disputed territories become the Republic of Pomerania created along the line of a Modellstaat under diplomatic pressure from Britain.
Several campaigns in Central Germany between France and Prussia that lead to the change of sides of Saxony in favor of the latter. The main allies Prussian, Austrian and Saxony showing signs of war exhaustion and internal disorder open diplomatic overtures that would end in the Peace of Vienna. Britain also joins following exhaustion and change of the internal politics and foreign affairs under Protector Spencer along the open willingness of the Consul Bonaparte to end the War in line with his goal of rebuilding France and bringing internal stability and development.
The Peace of Vienna settlement recognized the de facto limits of the armistice in Europe, India and Australia, recognition of the Confederation of the Rhine and its states, the creation of neutral buffer states such a Pomerania, Poland-Lithuania and unwillingly Saxony, under pressure of being annexed or partitioned by Prussia, being declared non allied country in the future. In its final Act it established the Congress System to deal with unsolved or arising problems within Europe. This issue was lobbied by Britain in order for its overseas territories, including the ones of the Netherlands, not becoming bargain chips. It also benefit Royalist Louisiana and Haiti.
After the Peace of Vienna[]
After the Peace of Vienna in 1810, Germania underwent significant political changes during and after the Revolutionary Wars. Following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, there was a major power shift, and new players emerged on the regional political landscape of Germania. These major players were the Confederation of the Rhine, Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony.
The Confederation of the Rhine, a creation of France, became a major regional political entity in Germany. Formed in response to the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and shaped by French geopolitical concerns, it was seen as a more effective alliance with fewer members. Its key members are Hannover-Westphalia and Rhenania, one of the first modern republics of Germany. Hannover-Westphalia, a state born out of the Revolutionary Wars and often overlooked in the past, emerged as a significant player in the new political order. Its strategic location and economic strength made it a key player in alliance with the Confederation of the Rhine and its key member state, Rhenania.
Prussia established itself as an independent power in the new Germanic political order. Its military prowess and strategic location made it a significant player in the region. Prussia's political influence grew, and it became a beacon of conservatism and absolutism, standing in stark contrast to the liberal tendencies of the Confederation of the Rhine.
Bavaria and Saxony also emerged as influential entities in the post-Peace of Vienna era. Bavaria, with its military power and economic strength, played a crucial role in shaping the economic landscape of Germania. Saxony, on the other hand, with its strategic location, industrialization and strong military, became an important player in the region's politics and particularly Eastern Europe.
Interestingly, the Austrian Empire, despite its size and historical influence, found itself sidelined in the new Germanic political order. The Empire, a multinational entity with a diverse array of realms, was plagued by internal issues. These issues, ranging from ethnic tensions to administrative inefficiencies, hindered the Empire's ability to exert influence in Germania. As a result, the Austrian Empire, once a major player in the politics of the region, found itself largely absent from the new political order of Germania.
The rise of these major powers in the new Germanic political order also had significant implications for the smaller states in the region. These minor states found themselves in a position where they had to adapt and accommodate the interests and policies of the major German Powers. Examples are the loose alliance of League of Thuringian States, the consolidation of the various duchies of Anhalt in one Duchy of Anhalt due to inheritance or dynastic agreements and the Republic of Pomerania whose Independence was guaranteed by other powers in Germany and outside of it.
Religion[]
Christianity is the predominant religion in Germania, introduced around 300 AD during the Roman Empire era. Germanic tribes began converting in the fifth century, and by Charlemagne's reign in the eighth and ninth centuries, the region was fully Christianized. The 16th-century Reformation led by Martin Luther saw many depart from Catholicism to embrace Protestant beliefs, particularly Lutheranism and Calvinism. In the 17th and 18th centuries, some German cities and states became centers of heretical and secular thought, influencing moral perspectives throughout Germany and Europe. For more details see Protestantism in Germany.
The Roman Cahtolic Church and the dissident and liberal Union of Catholic Churches (UEC, 1837) have a large following in Western Germany. Besides Christianity, the Cult of Reason, a deist and civic religion is present in the Western states of Germany.
German States Customs Unions[]
After the Peace of Vienna (1810) that ended the European Revolutionary War (1790-1810) there were a series of actions to reorganize the political map of the former Holy Roman Empire in Germany. Rivalries left over from the Revolutionary Wars between the German states led to the establishment of three major blocs:
- a West bloc composed of Rhenania and Confederation of the Rhine, All close allies of France and integrated by the more liberal north western states of Germany
- the East and Central group made of Prussia, Saxony and the Thuringen states. All of them Protestant, mostly independent and more focused in eastern Europe in their foreign policy.
- a Southern bloc of Bavaria and Austria, an alliance based on the geographical and historical links of the southern Catholic German states.
- and finally loose northern associations of the city states of Bremen, Hamburg, Lübeck, the republic of Pomerania and the Grand-Duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz that are based on mercantile interest and their closeness to the UK of Scandinavia.
These blocs expressed themselves in trade and customs unions. Some of these unions more or less coordinated and managed tariffs and economic policies within the territories of their member states.
- Zoll- und Handelsverein der Thüringischen Staaten: A trade and customs union of the Thuringian States. A supplementary treaty added a monetary and the coinage union of the Convention of Coburg (Thuringian thaler);
- Westdeutscher Zollverein: A trade, customs and monetary agreement between the members of the Confederation of the Rhine;
- Preussisch-Sächsische Zollverein: A trade and customs treaty between Prussia and Saxony;
- Südliche Zollverein: A trade and customs treaty between Bavaria and Austria;
- Nord Allianz: A port, shipping and transport agreement of Bremen, Hamburg, Lübeck, Pomerania and Prussia with Scandinavia; and
- Mecklenburgischer Verband (Mecklenburg Association): A trade, monetary and customs union of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz
German states during and after the European revolutions[]
| Flag | Coat of Arms | Country | Regime | Capital | Established | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
|
Rhenanian Republic | Directorial republic
(First Director) |
Cologne | 1794 to date | Member state of the Confederation of the Rhine / Modellstaat |
|
|
Austrian Empire | Absolute monarchy
(Emperor) |
Vienna | 1805 to date | |
|
|
Kingdom of Prussia (Brandenburg-Prussia) | Absolute monarchy - Constitutional monarchy 1840s
(King) |
Berlin | 1525 (Duchy), 1701 (Kingdom) to date | |
|
|
Free State of Hannover-Westphalia | Directorial republic
(First Consul) |
Hannover | 1805 to date | Member state of the Confederation of the Rhine / Modellstaat |
|
|
Kingdom of Württemberg | Constitutional monarchy
(King) |
Stuttgart | 1112 (County), 1495 (Duchy), 1805 (Kingdom,) 1866 union in the Kingdom of Württemberg-Baden | Member state of the Confederation of the Rhine / Reformstaaten |
|
|
Grand Duchy of Baden | Constitutional monarchy
(Gran Duke) |
Karlsruhe | 1112 (Margraviate), 1805 (Grand Duchy), 1866 union in the Kingdom of Württemberg-Baden | Member state of the Confederation of the Rhine / Reformstaaten |
|
|
Kingdom of Württemberg-Baden | Constitutional monarchy
(King) |
Stuttgart | 1866 to date | Member state of the Confederation of the Rhine / Reformstaaten |
|
|
Kingdom of Hesse | Constitutional monarchy
(King) |
Marburg | 1805-1821 Union in the Grand Duchy of Hesse-Würzburg | Member state of the Confederation of the Rhine / Reformstaaten |
|
|
Duchy of Nassau | Constitutional monarchy
(Duke) |
Wiesbaden | 1806 to date | Reformstaaten |
|
|
Grand Duchy of Oldenburg | Constitutional monarchy
(Grand Duke) |
Oldenburg | 1101 (County), 1774 (Duchy), 1810 (Grand Duchy) to date | |
|
|
Kingdom of Saxony | Absolute monarchy - Constitutional monarchy 1830s
(King) |
Dresden | 804 (Duchy of Saxony), 1296 (Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg) 1356 (Electorate), 1805 (Kingdom) to date | |
|
|
Kingdom of Bavaria | Constitutional monarchy
(King) |
Munich | 555 (Duchy), 1623 (Electorate), 1805 (Kingdom) to date | Former observer state of the Confederation of the Rhine (1805-1815) / Reformstaaten |
|
Confederation of the Rhine | Confederation | Free City of Frankfurt | 1805 to date | ||
|
|
League of Thuringian States | Constitutional and absolute monarchies, all constitutional monarchies after 1848
(First Minister-President[2]) |
Erfurt | 1812 to date | Kleinstaaterei |
|
|
Republic of Pomerania | Presidential republic
(President) |
Rostock | 1808 to date | Reformstaaten |
|
|
Grand Duchy of Würzburg | Constitutional monarchy
(Gran Duke) |
Würzburg | 1805-1821 Union in the Grand Duchy of Hesse-Würzburg | Member state of the Confederation of the Rhine / Reformstaaten |
|
|
Free City of Frankfurt | City-State
(First Mayor) |
Frankfurt am Main | 1372 to date | Member state of the Confederation of the Rhine / Reformstaaten |
|
|
Republic of Mainz | Directorial Republic
(First Director) |
Mainz | 1791-1792, 1802-1806 Voted union to Rhenania | Member state of the Confederation of the Rhine / Modellstaat |
|
|
Principality of Erfurt | Absolute monarchy
(Prince-Bishop) |
Erfurt | 1802-1811 Established by the exiled Prince-Bishop of Mainz. Annexed by Prussia | Kleinstaaterei |
|
|
Free Hanseatic City of Bremen | City-State
(First Mayor) |
Bremen | 1186 to date | |
|
|
Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg | City-State
(First Mayor) |
Hamburg | 1189 to date | |
|
|
Free and Hanseatic City of Lübeck | City-State
(First Mayor) |
Lübeck | 1226 to date | |
|
Duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg | Absolute monarchy
(Duke) |
Bernburg | 1603 (Principality), 1807 (Duchy)-1863 | Inherited in the Duchy of Anhalt / Kleinstaaterei | |
|
|
Duchy of Anhalt-Dessau | Absolute monarchy
(Duke) |
Dessau | 1603 (Principality), 1807 (Duchy)-1863 | Inherited in the Duchy of Anhalt / Kleinstaaterei | |
|
|
Duchy of Anhalt-Köthen | Absolute monarchy
(Duke) |
Kothen | 1603 (Principality), 1807 (Duchy)-1863 | Inherited in the Duchy of Anhalt / Kleinstaaterei | |
|
|
Duchy of Anhalt | Constitutional monarchy
(Duke) |
Dessau | 1863 to date | Kleinstaaterei / Union of Anhalt duchies |
|
Principality of Hohenzollern-Hechigen | Absolute monarchy
(Prince) |
Hechingen | 1576 (County), 1623 (Principality) -1817 (Union in the United Principalities of Hohenzollern) | Member state of the Confederation of the Rhine / Kleinstaaterei | |
|
|
Principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen | Constitutional monarchy
(Prince) |
Sigmaringen | 1576 (County), 1623 (Principality) -1817 (Union in the United Principalities of Hohenzollern) | Member state of the Confederation of the Rhine / Kleinstaaterei | |
|
|
|
United Principalities of Hohenzollern | Absolute monarchy, constitutional monarchy from 1849
(Prince) |
Sigmaringen | 1817 to date | Member state of the Confederation of the Rhine / Kleinstaaterei |
|
Principality of Isenburg | Absolute monarchy
(Prince) |
Isenburg | 1137 (County), 1806- (Principality, Annexed to Frankfurt) | Member state of the Confederation of the Rhine / Kleinstaatere | |
|
Principality of Leyen | Absolute monarchy
(Prince) |
Leyen | 1806-1838 Annexed by the Grand Duchy of Baden | Member state of the Confederation of the Rhine / Kleinstaaterei | |
|
|
Principality of Liechtenstein | Constitutional monarchy
(Prince) |
Vaduz | 1719 to date | Member state of the Confederation of the Rhine / Kleinstaaterei |
|
|
Principality of Lippe-Detmold / Lippe | Constitutional monarchy
(Prince) |
Detmold | 1528 (County), 1789 (Principality) | Member state of the Confederation of the Rhine / Kleinstaaterei |
|
Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe | Constitutional monarchy
(Prince) |
Bückeburg | Union in the Principality of Lippe (1647-1826) | Member state of the Confederation of the Rhine / Kleinstaaterei | |
|
|
Principality of Waldeck-Pyrmont | Constitutional monarchy
(Prince) |
Arolsen | Merge into the Duchy of Brunswick (1850) | Member state of the Confederation of the Rhine / Kleinstaaterei |
|
Duchy of Brunswick | Constitutional monarchy
(Duke) |
Braunschweig | 267-1815 (as Principality of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel), 1815 to date Duchy of Brunswick | Member state of the Confederation of the Rhine / Kleinstaaterei | |
|
|
Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg | Absolute monarchy
(Duke) |
Ratzeburg | 1296–1816 Officially became part of Denmark, Sweden and Norway | Kleinstaaterei | |
|
Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz | Constitutional monarchy
(Grand Duke) |
Neustrelitz | 1701 (Duchy), 1815 (Grand Duchy) | Member of the Mecklenburg Association [3] | |
|
|
Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin | Constitutional monarchy
(Grand Duke) |
Schwerin | 1701 (Duchy), 1815 (Grand Duchy) | Member of the Mecklenburg Association |
Glossary[]
Kleinstaaterei (small-state-ery) is a pejorative German word, mainly used to denote the territorial fragmentation in Germany and neighboring regions during the Holy Roman Empire (especially after the end of the Thirty Years' War). It refers to the large number of virtually sovereign small and medium-sized secular and ecclesiastical principalities and Free Imperial cities, some of which were little larger than a single town or the grounds of the monastery of an Imperial abbey. Estimates of the total number of German states at any given time during the 18th century vary, ranging from 294 to 348 or more. Furthermore, many German states were composed of two or more non-contiguous parts, often politically united through a marriage. Most states had at least one or two enclaves or exclaves, and some considerably more. A major reduction of their number came by the Mediatisierung, forced annexations during the Revolutionary Wars and several treaties at the time of the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine.
Modellstaat (Model state)is an state that under direct guidance and supervision of the French as adopted the policies of a Reformstaaten.
Mediatisierung (Mediatization) was the major territorial restructuring that took place in Germany and the surrounding region (the Holy Roman Empire and Confederation of the Rhine) by means of the mass mediatization and secularization of a large number of Imperial Estates: ecclesiastical principalities, free imperial cities, secular principalities and other minor self-ruling entities that lost their independent status and were absorbed into the remaining states.
Reformstaaten (reformed state) refers to State that as a republican constitution, elected legislative and executive, independent judiciary, civil code, common citizenship, charter of liberties and freedoms and universal suffrage or similar, completely abolished feudalism, emancipation of Jews, at least a public primary school system, economic liberalism and is secular state or has an official reformed church.
See also[]
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