Ty Senedd, Caerdydd
The Senedd Cymru is the Parliament of Wales. First established as a unicameral legislature by Prince Owain Glyndwr during the First War of Independence it has existed in one shape or another until today’s bicameral system. The current system dates from the Great War (1939-45) and the American led reforms of the early 1950’s and sees two houses. Ty Uchaf and Ty Isod
Machynlleth Period[]
The first Senedd was called by Prince Owain IV in 1404. This parliament confirmed Owain as Prince of Wales, agreed the return to the traditional laws of Hywel Dda and also confirmed Gruffydd Young as Owain’s Canghellor. During Owain’s reign the Senedd continued to act as a gathering of the leaders of the Commotes of Wales, whereby each commote sent two of the leading men to meet in Machynlleth to pass laws and order the raising of taxes. Its first act as a recognised national parliament was the passing of the Treaty of London. This system continued under the reign of Owain’s heir, Prince Maredudd I of Wales. Under Maredudd, the Senedd would legitimise his elevation to Kingship, pass marriage treaties (Treaty of Shrewsbury) and continue to organise the raising of taxes. During Owain’s and Maredudd’s reigns the control of the Senedd fell within the grasp of three men. The first Canghellor of Wales, Gruffydd Young (who was also the Archbishop of St Davids and Primate of Wales), then after Gruffydd came Ieuan ap Bleddyn, Bishop of St Asaph and then Einion Trefor, Bishop of Hereford. This was the first period of ecclesiastical rule. With the coming to power of Owain V a break was achieved. During his fathers reign, Maredudd had held a tight grip on power, with his chosen clergy controlling the political apparatus. With his elevation to the kingship, Owain replaced Einion with Daffyd Young, nephew to the first Canghellor. Dafydd was the first non-ecclesiastical Canghellor and approached his role with vigour.
1st Golden Era - Reigns of Owain V & Hywel I[]
Under Owain and Dafydd the Senedd enjoyed a period of extended authority, with the Senedd Hir 1472-79 (Long Parliament 1472-79) noted for its codification of Welsh Law, the establishment of Judges and Courts, the establishment of the Welsh Universities as well as its ratification of several international treaties. The Senators in this period grew used to wielding power in Wales and when following the rise of Richard III in England and Owain’s decision to not recognise him as overlord the Senedd again passed a new law recognising only God as the Welsh King’s superior.
During this time and under the guiding hand of Dafydd Young, the Senedd also passed the laws that helped create the Tripartite Principalities, and also confirming the Kings grants of titles to the newly made Earls of Wales. Under Hywel I, the Senedd continued to be a strong vibrant place, with Gwillym Young, son of Dafydd, gaining the canghelliant (chancellorship) in 1489. Treaties with England and Scotland secured land, cities, and the promise of a dynastic match (with Scotland). The Senedd continued to raise taxes and provide the King with advice. Problems with the Senedd, however, began with the arrival of the Earl of Pembroke as Canghellor. The Kings Brother in Law was a hard man and attempted to break the Senedd to his own will. His tenure in office lasted until the advent of Rhys, Prince of Powys.
Years 1512-1600[]
It is during Hywel II’s reign that the Senedd begins its first period of decline. At the beginning of Hywel’s reign the Cyngor y Rhaglywiaeth (Regency Council), headed by Pembroke’s brother, the Dug Dyfed and their sister, the Queen of Wales, worked closely with the Senedd. Following the debacle of the Treaty of Woodstock however, the Senedd was to side increasingly with the Prince of Powys. The Senedd would later be used by both Rhys of Powys and Cadell
20th Century portrait of Canghellor Tomos Goch (1560-72)
of Brycheiniog to elevate first Prince Owain of Powys to the rank of Dug (Duchy of Gwent) and then raising of the House of Mortimer from an Earldom to Dug Y Mers (Dukes of March). The Senedd was necessary to legitimise Powys’ role as Canghellor and so continued to meet, regulating the collection of taxes and passing laws. The growing impotence of the Senedd, however, was to be seen in the 1st Anglo-Welsh War. Many members spoke out against the war, but all Senatorial opposition was crushed by Powys in his desire for war with England, and the Senedd also became the battle ground of choice with the supporters of Edling Rhodri and Rhys Tywysog Powys clashing in the chambers as the tension between the two men grew.
During the nine year reign of Rhodri, the Senedd was largely confined to infighting over the 2nd Anglo-Welsh war and the rise in Protestantism in Wales. Laws were passed in an attempt to control this new religion, whilst the new Canghellor, Gruffudd Fychan began what was called the Cyfnod 1af canghellorion mynachaidd (1st Period of Monastic Chancellors). The Senedd would continue the rest of Rhodri’s reign in a curious limbo. Under a Gruffudd the Senedd would remain a vibrant debating chamber, but its powers were already diminishing, with the two English wars testament to the Senedd’s inability to prevent a king from going to war.
During the reign of Elen, the Senedd continued as it had been under Rhodri, important but impotent. With a Queen Regnant the Senedd assumed a greater importance than it had seen during the last two reigns, but its powers were still not as great as it had been. Trade and religion continued to dominate the laws leaving the Senedd.The long peaceful reign of Elen served to keep the Senedd on its dormant state, passing laws, raising taxes but no longer full of men seeking power. It had ceased to be seen as a way or means to power within Wales.
With Elen growing older and her son and heir being a protestant, the Senedd began again to take on the air of importance. The Canghellor, Fychan Parry, authorised monies to refurbish and renovate the Parliament buildings in Machynlleth, expanding the main debating chamber, building a Royal Apartment attached to the complex and adding new law courts. With the 1590’s came more debates about religion, more debates concerning the succession as supporters of the Edling, Marc moved to ensure his smooth succession to the throne, and then with Marc’s accession on the 4th November 1598 the Senedd entered a critical period. In the February of 1599 Marc convened a parliament that was to pass some of most liberal religious laws in Welsh legal history, it was also to witness both the public breaking of the Royal Family with Dug Rhys o Deheubarth breaking with his brother, it would also witness the dugs attack on the town later in the year. For the remainder of the reign, parliament would not meet, with its members spread out amongst the political camps they had chosen to join.
The 2nd Golden Era of Parliament[]
With Dafydd came a new period for the Senedd. During the new kings technical minority, the Kingdom was controlled by a Cyngor y Rhaglywiaeth (Regency Council), with the king busy reconstituting the parliament. On the 1st March 1601, the Senedd, now packed with “kings’ men” passed an Act of Parliament, revoking the Cyngor y Rhaglywiaeth. Gwydion ap Hael, Esgob Bangor (Bishop of Bangor) was to be Canghellor of Wales for 20 years and he was a battle hardened, sharp political operator and he put the Senedd back on track. Acts were passed revoking the legislation passed during Marc’s reign, with new legislation passed tightening control on Protestants within the kingdom. The Senedd settles down for the first 20 years of Dafydd’s reign, with Gwydion guiding it and the state. The Senedd slowly during this period garners prestige and dignitas though not new powers. Then under the guidance of Rhys Fychan, Esgob Llandaf (Bishop of Llandaff), Canghellor 1621-35, Dafydd convened the Y Eisteddiad Hir (The Long Session 1625-34), a nine year period of re-codifying Welsh law in all areas. The Senedd came out of this session with new wide ranging powers and a belief in itself that it had lacked, with the Great Act (Gweithredu Fawr) of 1634 a milestone in Welsh politics, though Dafydd had also laid the seeds of destruction with his increased use of the Privy Council to circumvent parliament when required.
The greatest testament, however, to Dafydd’s reign was that during a two year period with an absent king, the Senedd continued to meet, continued to pass laws, and comported itself in a manner benefiting its status. During the 1640’s however, the Senedd looked on nervously as the English Parliament waged war against Charles I, with Hywel at first not consulting the Senedd before pledging Welsh aid to the beleaguered Anglo-Scottish King. Under the Canghellor, Gruffud Young, Lord of Cemais and descendant of the Gwillym Young (Canghellor 1488-1499) the Senedd began to intrude on the private Councils of the King, and pushed for support of the English Parliamentarians. The 1646 Y Ddeddf Amhleidiaeth (Neutrality Act) was therefore a triumph of parliamentarianism and the Senedd was also closely involved with the Army reforms of Duke Tomos, ratifying the Siarter y Brenin (Kings Charter) of 1650 which led to the formation of the first professional army in Welsh history.
The period of the English Commonwealth would see the Senedd ascend in influence. With the Princely Plot of 1654 a failure, Hywel would begin to lean on the Senedd, using it to rule Wales. The Senedd become flush with men seeking influence, power and prestige. During this period, the Senedd also provided the funds to build the Navy under Prince Maredudd, and therefore entered into political battles with the Prince as the Navy endured defeat and humiliation, eventually with the Senedd winning the battle, the Prince exiled to the English capital.
With the end of the 3rd Anglo-Dutch war, Hywel retires from the effective rule of Wales, and the Canghellor, Llewellyn Preece, Abad o Abaty Tyndyrn effectively seizes control of Wales for the Senedd. 1674 to 1683 would be the zenith of parliamentarian rule in Wales. Under Preece, the country was stable, well governed, and in peace with all its neighbours. Wealth poured into the exchequer and in general living conditions for all improved.
A Slow Decline 1683 - 1703[]
This all ended with the death of Hywel III and the ascension of his son, Hywel IV. Hywel Anffodus (the Unfortunate) had allowed the growth of parliament, his gradual dislocation from the exercise of power allowing both Preece and the Senedd to move to the centre stage, to begin to accrete the sorts of powers and privileges that were by now second nature to the Westminster Parliament. Hywel Rhagargoeli (the foreshadow), however, was young brash and eager to retake the political initiative.
Hywel's relations with parliament and government as a whole was fractious. He inherited a strong vibrant Parliament, led by the Abad o Abaty Tyndyrn (Tintern Abbey), but he and the Canghellor soon fell out shortly after Hywel's coronation. The pretext was the ongoing exclusion crisis in England with the attempt to disinherit the Catholic Duke of York. Preece and the Senedd did not oppose the Bill, seeing that such a move would destabilise the English, Hywel wanted to support his Catholic cousin. In November 1683, Hywel marched on Machynlleth with the Gard Brenhiniol. Using his men to surround the Senedd buildings, Hywel marched into the Ystafell Mawr (Great Chamber) with his personal guard, announcing to the astonished seneddwr that he was dismissing the Senedd and removing Preece from the office of canghellor. Numerous Seneddwr rose to speak against the king, to which Hywel responded by calling more of his men into the chamber, positioning them by the recalcitrant members until they were silenced. From 1683 to 1703 there would be no sitting Senedd and no Canghellor.
Hywel now attempted to rule Cymru without the aid of a Senedd or chief minister via the Cyngor Brenhiniol. From 1683 to 1688 he ruled without assistance, but the finances of the kingdom degenerated during this period, with Hywel attempting to spend money that he was no longer in a position to recoup in taxes. The lords of Wales were unhappy with the situation as well. Failing a Senedd to regulate and collect taxes, Hywel relied on the nobility, using the royal guard to extort money from them. By 1688 however, with his plans for the modernisation of both Palas Harlech, Dinas Harlech and the Castell Brenhiniol Harlech, in jeopardy due to lack of funds, he was persuaded to summon the Commotes in Senedd.
The 1688 Senedd was a short lived body. The seneddwyr quickly passed the required taxation bills, but Hywel feared they would try to flex their political muscles, especially after the Is-Isarll Rhos, brought forward a measure to re-establish the Gweithredu Fawr. Hywel quickly dismissed the Senedd and resumed his autocratic rule. From 1688 to 1703 Hywel would continue to call Senedd's for the purpose of taxation and minor law making, but no Senedd lasted more than 3 months before being dismissed and he appointed nobody to the position of Canghellor, preferring to appoint a Penllywydd whose sole purpose was to present the kings wishes. Otherwise Hywel ruled via the Cyngor Brenhiniol. This saw the beginning of the long nadir of the Senedd, it also marked the end of the Machynlleth Period with the Senedd never to sit there in a permanent setting again.
Much as Charles I had discovered earlier in England, Hywel found by 1703 that ruling without a parliament was difficult, and the Senedd returned that year when Hywel called for a Senedd to be held again in Machynlleth, under the ageis of Tomos Eifion, Abad o Abaty Llandudoch, who was to govern as Canghellor from 1703 to 1709. However, there were changes. The parliamentary session 1703-05 was the last session of the Senedd which could call Ty Senedd, Machynlleth as its permanent home. Thereafter, the senedd was called at the monarch's discretion at various Royal residences. Y Senedd met during 1705-18 at Palas Caernarfon, Palas Harlech, Palas Archesgobion Tyddewi, Caerdydd, Llwydlo and Amwythig, though under the careful, subtle guidance of Eifion, it would continue to grow, settling into its economic and taxation role, helping to cement its position in public life.
The Final Years 1703-1718[]
During the final years of Hywel Rhagargoeli and the reign of Dafydd V Anystyriol (the Rash) the Senedd would begin a slow rise from its deep nadir. Tomos Eifion, the efficient busy Canghellor of Hywel IV continued his role under Dafydd, making the Senedd important without appearing to intrude too much on the Royal Prerogatives. It was a delicate balancing act and one designed to play the waiting game, waiting for another Dafydd IV or Hywel III in order to fully regain the senedds power. After the ruinous reign of Hywel IV though, Wales was whilst not bankrupt, found itself in a perilous situation. Eifion's ministry focused on domestic matters, attempting to re-balance the kingdoms finances. Part of this saw the military continue to be ignored. Eifion's quiet approach had worked well with Hywel and continued to work well with Dafydd, however matters came to a head in 1709 when Eifion was unable to prevent the Gwrthryfel Gwyr (Gwyr Uprising), a religious uprising by Gwyr’s protestant population against the unfair Y Dreth Brotestannaidd (Protestant Tax) introduced by Parliament in that year to help fund the tax shortfall. This uprising helped end Eifion's ministry. The mutiny of the regiments and the cost of employing mercenaries was enough to persuade Dafydd to dismiss him from office. His successor was a rarity in Welsh politics. Commote member for Caernarfon, Seith Vaughan, was not member of a religious order, nor was he a nobleman, simply a member of the Gwynedd gentry. He had served in Eifion's ministry and was well considered by other seneddwyr as well as by members of the Court. He was the first non-religous, non-noble canghellor since the days of Dafydd Young.
Seith Vaughan
Vaughan's ministry was noticeably different to Eifion's. Where Eifion had continued to act as if Hywel IV was still monarch, Vaughan knew that Dafydd was a very different monarch. His ego was greater than his father's, but his intellect lesser. Vaughan proceeded to continue Eifion's work in establishing the Senedd as indispensable to the smooth running of the kingdom. To that end, he instituted offices of government, so rather than simply being a body that voted on taxation, the Senedd became a place of government, separate to the Royal Court. Royal prerogatives prevented Vaughan from expanding into foreign policy too much, but there was a lot of scope for domestic work and he set to his task with vigour. One key aspect that he brought with him from Eifion's ministry was the parlous state of the army. Creating the position of Meistr-Cyffredinol yr Ordnans (Master-General of Ordnance) for the artillery and Ysgrifennydd Rhyfel (Secretary of War) for the army along with a Tâl-feistr Cyffredinol y Fyddinand (Paymaster General of the Army) charging them all with looking at the army and army pay. Vaughan's most important work however was in shutting down the cynulliadau rhanbarthol throughout Wales. Due to the difficult nature of travel throughout Wales and the fragmented nature of its government since 1683, local cynulliadau had developed under the control or guidance of the dugs and tywysogion. These threatened the royal governments ability to rule and gather taxes. It was only in the realm of foreign policy that Vaughan failed to make an impression and it would cost him his position as canghellor.
The monarch had always held foreign policy as a royal prerogative, dating back to the establishment of the kingdom. The Senedd rarely intruded on these matters and this weak status ensured that its role in the English Act of Succession and Exclusion Crisis of 1701 & 1707 respectively was muted, with the Senedd having no role to play in Dafydd’s decision to stake a claim to the Anglo-Scottish “British” crown. This weakness was further highlighted by the crisis which built with the death of Queen Anne in 1714. The Senedd and Seith Vaughan, the Canghellor were opposed to any declarations of intent towards the British throne. When Vaughan discovered that Dafydd had pushed his claim to the Anglo-Scottish throne he led a deputation to the king, who was residing in his favoured Rhandy Brenhiniol (Royal Apartments) in Castell Caernarfon, to remonstrate with him. Here Vaughan overstepped the mark. Up til then he had worked well with Dafydd, allowing his monarch his ego. Dafydd however, could be as autocratic as his father if the mood took him. He dismissed Vaughan and his ministry on the spot, ordering the Gard Brenhiniol to remove them from the castell. Dafydd proceeded to overrule the Senedd and made his claim, further damaging Wales’ relationship with her neighbour.
In Vaughan's place, Dafydd placed his cousin, Tywysog Llewellyn Powys as canghellor, thinking him more suited to a royal government. Powys however was a long time confident of Vaughan's and had supported him during his ministry. As a result, under Powys, the Senedd continued its work in the background stabilising the government's finances and continuing to cement its place in public life. One major development under Powys was the Deddf Diwygio'r Fyddin 1716 (Army Reform Act) which put greater emphasis on the restructuring and rebuilding of the army. Placing the Dug Y Mers in control of the army and quietly bringing Vaughan back as Ysgrifennydd Rhyfel. The three men worked well together and along with the Iarll Scudamore (Meistr-Cyffredinol yr Ordnans) worked steadfastly to create a new army for Wales.
The work had barely begun before the next crisis came. With Dafydd still looking to aid James VIII & III in the wake of the failed "Fifteen" he decided to invade England. The move was taken against the wishes of Powys in the Cyngor Brenhiniol and without informing the Senedd. With the declaration of war in February 1718, notable seneddwyr including Vaughan, requested an audience with Dafydd, showing an increasing appetite in the Senedd for greater responsibilities. Dafydd was at his autocratic best however, refusing to allow the seneddwyr time to speak to him. Alarmed at the strength of feeling though, the king decided to dissolve the Senedd and remove Powys from the office of canghellor. With the dissolution of the Senedd it would not meet again until reign of Rhisiart I in the 1750’s. Many seneddwyr would die during the Anglo-Scottish invasion, including Vaughan, who was captured during the taking of Caernarfon and executed by the English forces.
The Second Period of the Senedd[]
Following Dafydd’s dissolution of the Senedd in 1718, there followed the 3ydd Rhyfel Cymru-Lloegr (3rd Anglo-Welsh War). This war saw the Anglo-Scottish kingdom conquer the Welsh kingdom, beginning a 41 year long English or British Occupation, where Wales formed part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain (sometimes referred to as the Empire of the British Isles). The peace treaty (Treaty of Manchester) which formally ended the war also ended any independent senedd within Wales. Instead of the senedd, such Welsh nobles as remained were offered places within the British House of Lords, whilst the commotes were replaced with British parliamentary constituencies with political representation within the House of Commons. At the beginning of the Occupation, few commoners and fewer again nobles took places within the British establishment, to the extent that for the House of Commons, the English nominated English settlers within Wales as MP's for the Welsh constituencies. As the Occupation went on, more native Welshmen started to stand for election. This ended in 1743 with the execution of over 200 members of the gentry. The men executed had largely been disruptive to the overall British control of Wales, but it was a shock to the Welsh political body. Shortly after the executions, the Gwrthryfel Pum Mlynedd (Five Year Revolt) began. This revolt disrupted Anglo-Scottish control across Wales and brought to an end the involvement of Welsh politicians with the British Parliament.
With the successful invasion of Rhisiart on the 17th August 1759 an independent Wales resurfaces. Following his coronation on the 29th August 1760, Rhisiart summons his first Senedd. Men from liberated Wales as well as occupied Wales flocked to the first meeting, held in Castell Aberteifi. The Senedd session saw his acclamation before the seneddwyr as well as legislation repudiating the Treaty of Manchester, the session also saw the Royal Decree separating the Senedd. Where before it had been a single parliament, nobles and commote members together, Rhisiart now separated them into two houses.
The 1st Ricardian Period[]
Rhisiart I. Reign: 1755 - 1773[]
The Senedd was returned under Rhisiart, with the new king issuing the call for men of the commotes to meet in council with their king. The message sent was "Gadewch i'r holl gymydau ddewis eu dynion gorau a'u hanfon i gwrdd yn y cyngor â'u brenin wrth ei fodd yn ei gastell yn Harlech ym mis Rhagfyr ym mlwyddyn ein harglwydd 1760" ("Let all the commotes select their best men and send them to meet in council with their king at his pleasure in his castle at Harlech this December in the year of our lord 1760").
Men from the liberated commotes came as did many from lands still under Anglo-Scottish control. The Teryn-Addurnau Brenhiniol (Royal Regalia) had just arrived back in Wales and all the men who had answered the call watched as the coron Hywel was paraded through the Neuadd Wych.
Following this, Rhisiart rose from his throne and declared that he would see a division to the Senedd, with the words "... dynion, arglwyddi a thywysogion mawr y deyrnas i eistedd yn fy nhŷ uchaf a dynion y bobl, a anfonwyd o'r cymydau, i ymgynnull yn fy nhŷ isaf. Seneddwyr i gyd, i'm cynghori ac i'm tywys yn fy ymdrechion wrth inni ryddhau ein mamwlad ..." (...the great men, lords and princes of the realm to sit in my upper house and the men of the people, sent from the commotes, to assemble in my lower house. Senators all, to advise and guide me in my endeavors as we liberate our homeland...).
With this, the Senedd was divided into the Ty Uchaf (usually referred to as the Senedd) and the Ty Isod (usually referred to as the Cynulliad) with the members calling themselves seneddwyr a seneddwyr cymwd (senators and commote senators). Due to the war and the fact that Rhisiart's grip on the liberated territory was not secure, this initial Senedd dealt with limited matters before the Seneddwyr cymwd were dismissed home. The men selected for the Ty Uchaf were largely already members of the Cyngor Brenhiniol and remained with the king. This set the pattern for the rest of Rhisiart's reign, with the lower house only being called periodically, with a rump of the Upper House "cynghori ac arwain" (advising and guiding).
With power vested again in the throne, with the Cyngor Brenhiniol acting as the main body advising the king, both houses of the Senedd were limited in scope, initially due to the safety of being summoned and later due to the war disrupted kingdom, however, the Lower House came from its 42 year abeyance with one thing intact, the king and his advisors still considered the Cynulliad as the only legitimate body to raise taxation for the Royal Government. The last Senedd summoned by Rhisiart met in 1769, passing legislation governing the raising of war taxes from liberated territory as well as recognising the treaties made by Rhisiart with other Catholic nations, notably Spain and France, though treaties are also signed with the Ottoman Empire, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Russia. This was an important development for the Cynulliad, giving it an entry to the kingdoms foreign policy.
Rhisiart II Reign: 1st Half: 1773 - 1780[]
The new monarch, Rhisiart II would prove to be the most obdurate opponent to the Senedd. Where his father was softly spoken, suave, a light hearted man, the son was cut from a different cloth. Rhisiart II was a fluent French speaker, not learning Welsh until after his return to the country in 1769. For the rest of his life, his Welsh was slow, hesitant, and he insisted that anyone speaking to him did so in either French or Italian. Where his father was unpresuming, Rhisiart II was grand, his ego, his sense of dignitas immense, he was the very picture of an autocratic monarch. His first dealings with the Senedd was for his defod esgyniad (rite of accession), where he stood before both houses, asking for their allegiance. It was custom for the new monarch to appear on foot, humble before the House, asking in humility. Rhisiart sat on his throne, the seneddwyr stood, the Lord Chamberlain of the Kings Household standing in for the canghellor. The moment came and went, the seneddwyr left unimpressed.
The first two Senedds were entirely concerned with taxation. The first Senedd, the Coronation Senedd, raised funds to pay for the ceremony. The second Senedd increase the punative taxes, designed to raise money to pay for troops, arms and mercenaries. The Senedd's were never in session long enough for opposition to the king to rear its head, though the political class, the merchants, the minor gentry chafed under the heavy heel of the young king.
Under Rhisiart I, the Cyngor Brenhiniol was central to the royal government, but the Ty Uchaf had a large role to play as well, as did the Cynulliad, if somewhat smaller. Under Rhisiart II, the Cynulliad, beyond passing financial laws, had little role in the government, whilst the Ty Uchaf was sidelined by the more powerful inner circle of nobles making up the Cyngor Brenhiniol. The emerging merchant class that began to be involved with national politics,however was an important indicator of the future, with seneddwr cymwd being returned who were not of the gentry.
The 1770's also saw an increase in diplomatic messages between leading members of the Cynulliad and the nascent American state. During the Heddwch Hir (The Long Peace) which lasted from 1779 to 1792 (though sporadic fighting would continue to occur duing this period), the Senedd was summoned and dismissed several times with both houses of the Senedd trying to bring some normality back to the kingdom. Several members however were caught up in the Cynllwyn Ystrad Fflur (Strata Florida Conspiracy). This period also saw Rhisiart begin to reintroduce the Great Offices of State, starting with the office of distain.
Cynllwyn Ystrad Fflur 1780 - The Strata Florida Conspiracy[]
The conspiracy against Rhisiart was born in large part shortly after his return to Wales in 1769. The young Edling, brash, very French, quickly made an enemy of Owain, Tywysog Gwynedd. Owain had not reconciled himself to losing the vote at the Convocation to Rhisiart ap Cystenin and his harsh abrasive personality was not designed to sit alongside Rhisiart ap Rhisiart's equally abrasive personality. However, the young prince also managed up get onto the wrong side of the Powys-Fadog family, with Iolo, Tywysog Powys and his cousin, Deiniol, Is-Iarll Bro-Streton (Church Stretton in Y Mers). Over the course of the next few years Rhisiart would go on to antagonise Meurig, Dug Gwent, Madog Dug Y Mers and several other members of the aristocracy. Rhisiart was a natural autocrat, he was interested in governance, in the minutiae of policy and whilst his rule was iron clad, Wales did prosper under his rule. This was no consolation however for the senior members of the nobility who saw their power diminished. Led by Owain, Tywysog Gwynedd, disaffected parts of Welsh society coalesced around him. Minor members of the gentry, men who had during the Anglo-Scottish period had grown used to exercising power and influence, found their voice diminished in Rhisiart's more centralised Wales. Merchants unhappy with the punitive taxation being put in place. These men all found support in the Gwyneddian court. During the years 1775-1779, the war effort and Rhisiart's successes meant that any conspiracy struggled to gain traction, but by the end of the campaigning season in 1779 the Heddwch Hir (The Long Peace) started. Wales was exhausted and broke. The loss of the key conspirator, Owain Tywysog Gwynedd in 1778 slowed down the conspiracy, but his son, Gruffud, was cut from the same cloth, taking up his father leadership role within the conspiracy and in December 1779 he saw his chance to topple the king.
The hero of the years 1777-9 was Iago, Iarll Penfro, the kings brother. At the Senedd called by Rhisiart in late December 1779 many representatives from the Comotes spoke of the young iarll in glowing terms. His retaking of Morgannwg and Gwent Uwch Coed along with the reconquest of Y Feni (Abergaveny), Trefynwy (Monmouth) followed up by the reconquest of Y Ddena had cemented his place amoungst the military leaders of Wales. Iago was also a softer character than his elder brother. Where Rhisiart's command of Welsh was poor, Iago was fluent, able to converse happily in either his native French, his mother's native Italian or his father's native Welsh, though his accent remained heavily Frenchified. He was also viewed as a moderate by many political commentators and whilst Tywysog Gruffud remained set on looking to retake the Crown for himself, other members of the Cynllwyn (Conspiracy) saw Iago as a potential alternative to Rhisiart, either in his own right or as Arglwydd Amddiffynwr (Lord Protector) for the young heir, Arthur.
When Rhisiart I had reinstated the Senedd, he had not reinstated the Swyddfeydd Mawr y Wladwriaeth (the Great Offices of State) along with it and now the seneddwr cymwd agitated for the return of these offices. Though the Ty Isod lacked the powers to return these offices, the support in that body encouraged Gruffud and the other Conspiracy leaders, who took it to the Ty Uchaf and the Cyngor Brenhiniol where they were successful in persuading Rhisiart to reinstate them. Iago was granted the office of Distain and the senior nobles within the conspiracy started to court his favour, gauging his loyalty to his brother the king.
The nobles however had not counted on the efficiency of the king. Rhisiart was no fool. He knew that his style of rule was certain to attract opposition and he set up a office called Ty Sibrydion (the House of Whispers) which provided him with many secrets that Gruffud would have preferred to keep from royal hands. In addition, Rhisiart's allies within the nobility meant that Gruffud was never sure of how many would support any attempt to unseat the king.
Over the next few months Grufffud tried to manoeuvre his men into key Court positions, whilst politicians from both houses continued to push for greater freedom for the Senedd. During that time Iago was courted by both Gwynedd and Powys, but gradually the two men realised that his loyalty to his brother was unshakable.
Finally in the Senedd called for September 1780 Gruffud made his move. The Ty Isaf was largely filled with men who if not firmly in the Conspiracy's camp, were at least sympathetic to its idea whilst the Ty Uchaf was split between those loyal to Gwynedd and those to the Crown. Rhisiart himself had been ill during the summer of 1780 and was confined to the Royal Appartments in Castell Caernarfon whilst the Senedd met in the Great Hall and Gruffud had managed to ensure that troops under his command were stationed just outside the castell. Rhisiart was aware that something was planned though his officers had been unable to determine what and as a result he had stationed troops from the Royal Guard under the command of members of the House of Morgannwg including his second cousin, the Dug Afan and his younger brother Is-Iarll Blaenafon, at all the gates into the castell, including the entrance to the Royal Appartments. Iago was still an unknown element. Would he remain loyal to his brother or would the temptation of power sway his head. Gruffud summoned both houses to met in the Great Hall and he announced that Rhisiart had been deposed and that Arthur, his young son, would succeed him (Gruffud had finally realised that support for his own push for the crown was insufficient to succeed) The Gwyneddian troops moved to enter the castell, only to find Siarl, Dug Afan at the head of the Royal Guard preventing their entering through the Kings Gate. Gruffud panicked as news filtered into the Great Hall that his troops had been prevented from entering the grounds and moved to escape through the Queen's Gate but was prevented by Rhisiart himself, still grey with illness, using an antiquated spear as a makeshift crutch holding a cavalry dragon pistol and supported by 6 guardsmen. With the seneddwyr leaving the Great Hall, Gruffud realised that his gamble was over and it was not part of his plan to die, even as a martyr. He surrendered, knowing that Rhisiart would be unable to execute him without plunging the kingdom into chaos. Gruffud would continue to intrigue against Rhisiart for the rest of his life, dying in a skirmish in 1788. His cousin, Rhys, who succeeded him to the Gwynedd crown did not share his ambition nor his dislike of Rhisiart.
Rhisiart II Reign: 2nd Half: 1781-96[]
With the failure of the Cynllwyn Ystrad Fflur, Rhisiart was forced to look more closely at the politics at play within the kingdom. his natural autocratic tendencies meant that he was still unwilling to allow the merchant classes to gain too much power in the Ty Isod, but the fact that enough senior nobles and some of the richest men in the kingdom had conspired to replace him showed him that he needed to attend to matters close to home. Within the Cyngor Brenhiniol he excluded those nobles who had been suspect with Gruffud, giving greater powers to the likes of Iarll Ceredigion, Mon, Henfford to govern in his name. Rhisiart also promoted members of his own house such as the Dug Afan, the Is-Iarll Blaenafon, Rhydderch Pengrych, Barwn Porthladd Mhen yr Afon and his twin the Arglwydd Meilyr as well as Edneyfed, Arglwydd Glynrhondda. Iarll Henffordd proved to be one of his more inspired choices. Henffordd was appointed as the head of the Ty Uchaf worked closely with those members in the Ty Isod who had the greatest power in the kingdom at large. His presence gave the illusion of access to power which helped placate members who looked to the English Commons with envy.
For the rest of the 1780's the Ty Isod itself was only called sporadically and then only to raise taxes for the royal government, but even within that limited role, the house started to build the foundations for its later growth. With the Ty Uchaf largely sidelined by the Cyngor Brenhiniol it served mainly to rubber stamp decisions already made. The Ty Isod by contrast argued with the royal officers, debated Rhisiart's measures even though their votes held no legality in the Ricardian settlement.
With the beginging of the 1790's the political situation in Wales had stabilised to a large degree. Though Rhisiart was an autocrat the political rhythm had settled into an uneasy pattern. The king ruled through the Cyngor Brenhiniol which issued decress to the Ty Uchaf to rubber stamp. The Ty Isod argued over the royal budget, decrying the expense of the ongoing war with the Anglo-Scottish kingdom but almost without exception authorising the tax requests, but the seneddwr cymwd had grown in quiet competence over the areas they could influence.
The Senedd called in 1790 ratified the earlier 1779 Senedd's call for the Great Offices of State to be restored. The 1781 Senedd had only succeeded in granting the title of Distain to Iago, Iarll Penfro, but now the full spectrum of offices were restored. Iago himself was raised to the office of Canghellor (Canghellor) placing him nominally in charge of the 'government'. One important change was in the role of overseas diplomacy. With the Ty Uchaf reduced to a cypher for the Cyngor Brenhiniol, responsibility for accrediting diplomats to the Welsh court and choosing Welsh diplomats to go overseas fell almost by default to the Ty Isod, ill equipted to handle the responsibilty in the early 1780's but which role it grew into during the decade. The other issue, which would also surface in the reign of Arthur, was that of the Army. Responsible for raising the taxes to pay for the kings adventures, the Ty Isod became entangled with the issues around paying the soldiers. To such an extent that whilst the whole Ty Isod was not called into session as often as its members would like, committees were formed to govern the management of the army that became standing committees. By the time that Iago became canghellor he inheirted a quasi-government operating beneath the royal government of the Cyngor Brenhiniol.
The establishment of the Coleg Swyddog Fyddin (Officer College) at Castell Caerffili in 1790 occurred entirely under the control of the Ty Isod committee for the Army (Pwyllgor y Fyddin). Along with the newly established Corfflu Swyddog y Fyddin (Army Officer Corp) and the College itself the Senedd also took over operational control of the Castell itself. Still called the "Caer Frenhinol Caerffili", the largest fortress in the kingdom, with its attendant artillery stores, it now passed into Parliamentary control, a situation that would never be reversed. This quiet coup passed by with almost no response from the king. With precedence now set, the Ty Isod began to meet more regularly, but still lacking in the clout to go against the royal directives.
The 1st Arthurian Period[]
The Senedd in the last few years of Rhisiart's reign had gained control of the army's purse strings as well as extending the scope of its economic powers, but as Iago, Iarll Penfro held the office of the cangelloriaeth and as he sat in the upper house power still resided in the Ty Uchaf rather than the Ty Isod. Changes had been made however. On the mission to London to obtain a peace treaty, the Iarll was accompanied by various seneddwr cymwd including Dafydd ap Aneurin Moel who was instrumental in the negiotiations. The Senedd Esgyniad was called in the April of 1795 even though Arthur had been king since his father's death in the January of that year. Unlike his father, Arthur took part in the ceremony with all the dignity and humility that the occasion demanded. After 22 years of Rhisiart's autocratic rule such a move was welcomed by the assembled nobles and gentry politicians. With the treaty negoitiations still ongoing in London, the date for Arthur's coronation was delayed, the "bloedd" or acclamation before both houses of the Senedd being deemed sufficient for the moment. The Cytundeb Amwythig (treaty of Shrewsbury) was signed in the January of 1796 and in a move reminisent of the Golden Era, the treaty was brought before both Houses for ratification. Such moves however did not alter the fact that the Senedd itself and the Ty Isod in particular were still relatively powerless against the power of the king as expressed through the Cyngor Brenhiniol.
The ratification of the treaty by both houses and the subsequent tying of Welsh foreign policy into Englands orbit did create something of a challenge for the Welsh political system. Disrupted by the Alwedigaeth Saeson and then limited in its scope by a mixture of war and an autocrat in Rhisiart II, the Senedd had remained the junior partner to the Cyngor Brenhiniol but it now found itself dealing with a Parliament and a Government in the United Kingdom of England & Scotland's that held power rather than merely obeying the whims of its monarch. A new committee, the Pwyllgor Lloegr (English Committee) was created to deal with the Anglo-Scottish government. The Napoleonic Wars saw Welsh troops fighting all over Europe and the Ty Isod in its new role of governing the army found itself in session more and more to help regulate the demands made on the state by the army. Arthur also recognised the economic damage done to Wales during the reign of Rhisiart II, as a result the Senedd was given greater tax raising powers, with the Ty Uchaf meeting regularly at the kings’ behest, and the Ty Isod, with its merchant members meeting to discuss the needs of the Welsh economy.
The result of the Cytundeb Amwythig was that Wales came into the orbit of the Anglo-Scottish state in foreign affairs, tied to an alliance with the kingdom. The instant impact of this was that the Welsh kingdom became involved in the War of the Second Coalition. The Pwyllgor y Fyddin in 1799 authorised the sending of an army to the continent and Arthur gave his consent to Iago, in his role as canghellor, to reinstitute the office of Ysgrifennydd Rhyfel (Secretary of War) as well as the offices of Tâl-feistr Cyffredinol y Fyddin (paymaster General of the Army ) and Meistr-Cyffredinol yr Ordnans (Master-General of Ordnance). The Ysgrifennydd Rhyfel chosen was the Seneddwr Cymwd of Caerwedros (of the Cantref of Is Aeron in Ceredigion), Seneddwr Geraint ap Emlyn de Llainwen and he would go on to serve in this role for most of the Napoleonic period. The Pendefig Cymru, Iorweth (1771-1809) was chosen to command the Welsh forces on the continent and Geraint ap Emlyn also reconstiuted the Swyddfa Rhyfel (War Office) in 1800 to coordinate the efforts of the Welsh army. These changes brought the Senedd itself and the Ty Isod in particular more in in-line with the Ango-Scottish House of Commons but it was still far short of being an effective government in waiting.
The Swyddfa Rhyfel authorised the sending of what ships the Welsh navy possessed to be attached to the English fleets in the Mediterranean and elsewhere, taking part in the Battles of Copenhagen (1801) and Trafalgar (1805) whilst Iorwerth led a small force of about 5000 men to the continent where he joined up with the Imperial Austrian forces. The force was integrated into the overall Austrian forces led by Feldzeugmeister Pál Kray and saw heavy losses in the battles during the year 1800.
In 1801, Ysgrifennydd Rhyfel, Geraint ap Emlyn de Llainwen gained consent from both Arthur and Iago to reconstitute the Y Swyddfa Morlys (Office of the Navy) to give greater Senedd control over the Navy.
Iago Iarll Penfro and Canghellor in 1803 created the first official post 1718 government using the Senedd as its base rather than the Cyngor Brenhiniol, though as the kings uncle he also sat in that council. The government was centred on the Ty Uchaf, with Iago and other nobles dominating, but it also included members from the Ty Isod. It was based on the Anglo-Scottish model.
| Portfolio | Minister | Took office | Left office |
|---|---|---|---|
| Canghellor & Gwas Ystafell Senedd
(Chancellor & Chamberlain of the Senedd) |
Iago, Iarll Penfro | 12th April 1790 | 25th Sept 1815 |
| Arglwydd Llywydd y Cyngor Gyfrin
(Lord President of the Privy Council) |
Maelgwyn, Dug Gwent | 25th June 1803 | 1st Nov 1806 |
| Ceidwad y Sêl Cyfrin
(Lord Privy Seal) |
Edmund Grey, Marcwis Llwydlo
(Dug Y Mers after 1805) |
25th June 1803 | 12th Jan 1806 |
| Brawdwr Llys
(Lord Chief Justice) |
Rhisiart, Iarll Gwlad yr Haf | 25th June 1803 | 14 Jun 1807 |
| Trysorydd
(Treasurer) |
Seneddwyr Cymwd Gareth Vaughan | 25th June 1803 | 31st Aug 1806 |
| Ysgrifennydd Gwladol dros Faterion Cartref
(Secretary of State for Home Affairs) |
Ednyfed, Is-Iarll Beaumaris | 25th June 1803 | 19th Oct 1809 |
| Ysgrifennydd Gwladol dros Faterion Tramor
(Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs) |
Gruffud, Is-Iarll Dinllaen | 25th June 1803 | 11th Feb 1804 |
| Ysgrifennydd Gwladol dros Ryfel
(Secretary of State for War) |
Seneddwyr Cymwd Geraint ap Emlyn de Llainwen | 10th Aug 1799 | 30th May 1811 |
| Ysgrifennydd Gwladol y Llynges
(Secretary of State for the Navy) |
Seneddwyr Cymwd Einion Moel | 20th Oct 1802 | 9th Jun 1807 |
| Tâl-feistr Cyffredinol
(Paymaster General) |
Seneddwyr Cymwd Iorwerth ap Meurig Bowen | 10th Aug 1799 | 16th Jan 1804 |
| Meistr-Cyffredinol yr Ordnans
(Master-General of Ordnance) |
Seneddwyr Cymwd Meilyr ap Arthur Gof | 10th Aug 1799 | 15th Sept 1806 |
| Ysgrifennydd Gwladol Masnach a Chyllid
(Secretary of State for Trade & Finance) |
Cynan, Iarll Brycheiniog | 25th June 1803 | 13th July 1808 |
The new Welsh Government complied with its obligations and entered the War of the Third Coalition, though given the difficulties with landing an army onto French controlled Europe, Wales provided ships to the Anglo-Scottish fleet instead with the flagship LPM Rhisiart Brenhiniol leading the fleet. During the War of the Fourth Coalition, Is-Cadfridog Iago ap Tomos, Barwn Hartpuri of the Catrawd Ffin Cymru led the Welsh troops into Europe, this time supporting the Anglo-Scottish forces in the Peninsula War 1808-14, whilst Iorwerth, Pendefig Cymru led troops to join up with Austrian forces in the war in Poland, where he would die at the Battle of Raszyn. With the Sixth & Seventh Coalitions, Wales continued to supply troops and ships to the Allied efforts. With the end of the Wars, Wales was represented at the Congress of Vienna by the now 57 year old Canghellor, Iago, Iarll Penfro, though he was by now in ill health, the Senedd was represented by Ysgrifennydd Gwladol dros Faterion Tramor, Bledwyn Is-Iarll Llanllieni and the treaty was ratified by both Houses of the Senedd in late 1815. Iago stepped down from his role of Canghellor after the treaties ratification, ending a twenty five year career as the pre-eminent politician in Wales. Elections were still not the norm in Wales but Arthur had come to recognise the limitations of the Cyngor Brenhiniol in running a state, so appointed Iorwerth, Tywysog Powys as Canghellor and invited him to form an administration.
During this time although the government in Caerdydd grew in stature, ultimate policy decisions were still retained by the Cyngor Breninol and directives issued to the Senedd to enact.
Birth of an Empire[]
It was during this period that Wales also embarked on an imperial pathway. As part of its obligations during the Second Coalition, Wales dispatched some ships to join the Alied Fleet at Copenhagen, but it also sent ships into the Atlantic to hunt down Spanish ships crossing from the America's. The Welsh Government and indeed the Royal Court had no over-arching imperial policy. The first colonies were accidents driven by a mixture of the Napoleonic Wars and economics.
Llyngesydd Ithel ap Cenydd (Admiral Itel ap Cenydd) had command of the Atlantic Squadron. Deciding to operate off the South American coast, he targeted a squadron of Spanish ships off the coast of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. Defeating the Spanish squadron, Ithel decided to take the inititive. Dispatching one ship to return to Penfro to petition the king for troops, he landed his remaining ships and marines onto the South American coast and set up camp. Both Arthur and the Senedd agreed that the petition for troops was a chance to land a blow against their Napoleonic enemies, so the Cyngor Brenhiniol authorised a small force of 3000 men under the command of Cadfridog Brigad Morris who set sail for the nascent Welsh colony. The subsequent battle of Trerawlson saw the Welsh forces defeat the Spanish and in the 1800 Treaty of Trerawlson, the colony of Y Wladfa was born, which again both Houses ratified. This event caused changes back home as well. The Government of Iago, Iarll Penfro after its formation in 1803 did not include any governance of its overseas territories, but this changed in 1806 with the creation of a new Ty Isod run government department, the Yr Adran Dramor (The Overseas Department) run by the Ysgrifennydd Gwladol y Trefedigaethau (Secretary of State for the Colonies).
The other Welsh colony from this early period was born not from war, chance and a kings eagerness for an overseas colony. Welsh West Africa was born out of the economic drive of the Pritchard family of Abergaveny. Claiming kinship with the royal house through Queen Marged Pritchard (wife of Hywel IV) who was both Arthur's GG Grandmother (her daughter Gwenllian married Arthur's Great Grandfather, Cystenin II Morgannwg) and his 1st cousin 3x removed, this made the current Lady Abergaveny (the Lady Rhiannon) his fourth cousin by closest degree of relationship. The Pritchards' had been one of the victims of the Yr Alwedigaeth (occupation) being banished to the America's in the 1750's. Settling in Annapolis, Maryland, the family thrived and continued in the families history of involvement in the slave trade. Following the restoration, Lady Rhiannon returned to Wales, and her husband and her brother continued to run the Deacon & Pritchard Company. Using their court connections and the fact that Gwillym Pritchard, Arglwydd Grosmont was also a Senedwyr, the company applied pressure to the Cyngor Brenhiniol to authorise an expedition to West Africa, ostensibly to take Spanish or French territory.
April 1803 saw a small semi-private force of six ships and 300 marine soldiers sail for Portuguese Guinea. Landing at the failed English outpost of Bolama, the Welsh soldiers, all veterans of the Wars of Indepedence, overran the Portuguese holding. Taking advantage of the continuing wars in Europe, Deacon & Pritchard launched an assault on the French enclave of Albreda on the Gambia with the Welsh troops quickly also overrunning the Anglo-Scottish St James fort as well. This led to demands being issued by the Addington ministry of England for its return, but in some behind the scenes manoeuvres, Gruffud, Is-Iarll Dinllaen succeeded in the Treaty of Freetown which recognised the Welsh acquisition of what was to be called Welsh Guinea. Over the next decade the Yr Adran Dramor would become instead the Swyddfa'r Wladfa (The Colonies Office) with the Ty Isod running this office.
Home Affairs[]
Whilst the Senedd and the Ty Isod made grounds in terms of foreign affairs and control of the army, the Ty Uchaf and the Cyngor Brenhiniol retained supremacy in domestic affairs. The biggest domestic threats to face Arthur during his reign were the Y Gwrthryfel Fyddin 1815 (Army Revolt of 1815) and the 2il Gwrthryfel y Mers (2nd Rebellion of the March).
The Y Gwrthryfel Fyddin was born out of the Napoleonic Wars. Returning troops had seen and tasted life overseas and had seen how much better the Anglo-Scottish troops were paid and treated than were Welsh troops. Coupled with mismanagement by the officers of the army, discontent bubbled into outright revolt with several garrison bases turned into armed insurectionist camps. As the army was under the control of the Ty Isod, Arthur and the Cyngor Brenhiniol turned to the Ysgrifennydd Gwladol dros Ryfel, Senedwyr Cymwd Cadog ap Hywel, to put the issue down. Cadog ap Hywel was ill suited to the role and failed in his negoitations with the army rebel leaders. The result was Arthur taking matters into his own hands. Ignoring the Senedd entirely, he recuited Irish and English mercenaries and proceeded to attack each rebel army base. The Senedd was outraged. Several ministers resigned, but the impotence of the Senedd and the Ty Isod was highlighted by the fact that the government itself, based still primarily on the Cyngor Brenhiniol and Ty Uchaf did not fall. At the conclusion of the revolt, Arthur ordered the expulsion of the main rebels to the colony of Y Wladfa and ordered his distant cousin, Fychan Pritchard to head up a Comisiwn Brenhiniol (Royal Commission). This commission lasted five years and its conclusion led to the Siarter Arthuraidd 1821 (1821 Arthurian Charter). This Charter established the army as a standing force for the first time. It also confirmed the army as an organ of the State under Senedd approval and control, re-confirming the status of the Swyddfa Rhyfel and the other government departments and cabinet level positions.
Both houses would also be instrumental in the 1821 Army Creation Acts and the Arthurian Charter, with the Ty Isod particularly instrumental in the passing and implementing of the acts. The most important element of the Charter and Acts though was the placing of the Army as “organ o’r Wladwriaeth o dan gyfarwyddyd y Senedd yw’r fyddin” ("The army is an organ of the State under the direction of Parliament" ).
The 2il Gwrthryfel y Mers (2nd Rebellion of the March) was another threat to Arthur's control of the country. The Dugiad Y Mers (Dukes of the March) had long held independent tendencies. In the semi chaotic years of the 1790's the Dug, Madog Grey, had been allowed to reestablish the Cynulliad y Mers (the Assembly of the March) a body last held during the reign of Dafydd V. Under Madog the Cynulliad worked well with the Cyngor Brenhiniol, with his death in 1805 however, control passed to his son Edmund, a man of poor health and even worse judge of character. During his three years as Dug, Anglo-Scottish 'advisors' gained control of the Cynulliad and the Duchy's key positions. Arthur foresaw problems and tried to deflect them, arranging for the Meurig, who succeeded his father in 1808, to head overseas with the army, serving in both Europe and Africa. On his return in 1816 though, matters quickly deteriorated. Arthur tried to keep Meurig within the royal circle, granting him the role of Gwas Ystafell, but Meurig became more and more distant from Caerffili.
In the March of 1820, Meurig issued a demand to the government that all troops raised or stationed in Y Mers would be answerable to the Cynulliad Y Mers. Both the government under Maelgwyn, Iarll Ystrad Towi and the Cyngor Brenhiniol refused this demand. Rasing the Ducal Banner in rebellion against the Crown, the Government moved to mobilise the army to put the rebellion down. However, Arthur chose to act independently of the Senedd. Raising troops from garrisons in Morgannwg, Ddena and Henfford he marched north into Y Mers, whilst Rhisiart, Edling Cymru, rode south from Amwythig with elements of the Gard Brenhiniol. The Senedd and Y Swyddfa Ryfel powerless again as the king employed his royal perogrative. The initial meeting of Rhisiart and Meurig ended in disaster, with Rhisiart and most of the Gard Brenhiniol dying outside Llwydlo. The Royal Army under Arthur engaged the Ducal forces on the 31st July 1820. With his defeat, couriers from Caerffili raced to Llwydlo to demand that the Dug face trial in the Senedd. Arthur's answer to the Senedd was to have the dug executed on the 1st August.
After the conclusion of the abortive gwrthryfel y Mers the governance of Wales settled down. The government of Dafydd, Iarll Brycheiniog (1823-1829) attempted to address the ongoing economic fallout from the rhyfeloedd annibyniaeth, y rhyfeloedd napoleonig, y gwrthryfel fyddin and 2il gwrthryfel y Mers. The economy did improve in the last decade of Arthur's reign, but the ongoing discontent within the merchant classes left an undercurrent in the political classes that did not bode well for the future.
The Constantinian Period[]
Cystennin inherited not only a country at peace, but a country with a thriving political establishment and class of people to run it. He inheirited the government of Marc, Iarll Henfford (1829-1834) and at the Senedd Esgyniad Cystennin made a good account of himself amoungst the Seneddwyr. Royal government continued to be dictated at the Cyngor Brenhiniol and passed to the Senedd in both houses, but as the cangellorion continued to be members of the senior nobility this did not present much of a problem to the smooth running of the business of government. In a change to Arthur, Cystennin was disinclined to micro-manage in the same fashion as his father, meaning that the Cyngor Brenhiniol did not intrude as much into Cabinet as in the previous reign. In fact Marc found himself with more freedom to govern than any parliamentarian had since the reign of Hywel III. In large part this was due to Cystennin having not been the heir. His elder brother, Rhisiart, had been groomed from an early age to be king and all the evidence showed that he would have continued in his fathers footsteps, Cystennin was less interested in the act of governing and more interested in the trappings of that power.
As part of the Senedd Esgyniad, and as part of his coronation celebrations, Cystennin ordered that Caerdydd was raised to be the Imperial Capital (Civitas Augustus), and the Royal Court at Palas Caerdydd made the formal Court of Wales (Llys Sant Tewdrig, the Court of St Tewdrig or Curia Sancti Theodoric in Latin - Tewdrig being claimed as an ancestor of Cystennin).
Cystennin also pressed the Senedd for funds to patronage an explosion in the arts within Wales. As part of his coronation he granted a Siarter Frenhinol (Royal Charter) to a Pedwarawd y Brenin (Kings Quartet, later to be the Cerddorfa Frenhinol - Royal Orchestra). He granted lands and buildings for the establishment of a Coleg Brenhiniol y Celfyddydau a Cherddoriaeth (Royal College of Arts and Music). The Academi Wyddoniaeth Frenhinol (Royal Science Academy) was formed in 1835 and the first public Art Gallery and museum in Caerdydd opened in 1839.
With the movement of the Imperial capital to Caerdydd, and the explosion of Royal Charters establishing museums, societies and commerce, the Senedd was well placed to take advantage of these improvements and the quality of the seneddwyr selected by the commotes rose greatly. The Senedd however still did not have a home of its own. Whilst the government itself had buildings scattered across Caerdydd, Caerffili with some still in Harlech, the Senedd itself still met in various places at the kings pleasure. During Arthur's reign, most Senedd's met at Castell Caerffili or at Palas Senghenydd with some held in Harlech or Caernarfon. Under Cystennin, the Senedd met almost entirely in a grand hall built in the grounds of Castell Caerdydd opposite the Rhandy Brenhiniol.
The government of Maelgwyn Dug Gwent (1834-1840) was brought down by the Argentine-Cymro War of 1840. The handling of the war shook the government, but in a curious twist, the outcome of the war itself, though it saw the loss of Y Wladfa to the nascent Argentine Republic, it allowed the Ty Isod to claw yet more powers over foreign affairs to itself. The Y Weinyddiaeth Tramor (Foreign Office) had been the preserve of the Ty Uchaf up until the war, with the Swyddfa Rhyfel coming under the control of the Ty Isod. The incoming canghellor, Elphin Iarll Ynys Mon, pressed for Y Weinyddiaeth Tramor to come under Ty Isod control away from the intrigues of the senior nobility. The office of Ysgrifennydd Gwladol dros Faterion Tramor also went under a change with the old term, Distain, coming back into fashion (though the official title would remain Ysgrifennydd Gwladol dros Faterion Tramor.
The canghellor however was not an independent man. He belonged to Tywysog Rhys Gwynedd, who was intriguing to gain power. The relationship between the two princely families had been strained since the election of Rhisiart I as Welsh monarch and had continued to bubble away under the surface under his successors, Rhisiart II and Arthur. Under both those monarchs however the chance to act was limited (though attempted during y cynllwyn Ystrad Fflur), but under the more disinterested Cystennin, the more able Rhys saw his chance.
In 1843 Cystennin fell seriously ill and was confined to his rooms in the Rhandy Brenhiniol. This illness exposed the weakness inherent in the Welsh governmental system. Even though there was now a government (Elphin headed the fifth government of the post 1796 era) the lack of direction and control from the Cyngor Brenhiniol exposed how weak the government and cabinet was in making independent decisions. The Y Trysorlys, Swyddfa Rhyfel and Y Swyddfa Morlys continued largely unaffected, but the Swyddfa'r y Tu, Y Weinyddiaeth Tramor, Swyddfa'r Wladfa were all under the control of the Ty Uchaf, which itself was usually just the cypher of the Cyngor Brenhiniol. With Elphin waiting for orders from either his king or his master, the Tywysog Gwynedd, the wheels of government ground to a halt.
Rhys raced from Caernarfon to Caerdydd and quickly imposed his authority on the Cyngor Brenhiniol and whilst Elphin remained nominally the canghellor, it was clear who was pulling the strings, though Rhys did not presume to take direct control of the Cabinet. The one issue was that the army remained under the control of the Ty Isod, with the Ysgrifennydd Gwladol dros Ryfel fleeing Caerdydd to Caerffili, where he spoke to the Dug Y Mers, who was the professional head of the army. Edmund IX owed his life to Arthur and Cystennin, having inheirited his title after the death of his cousin, Meurig in the gwrthryfel Y Mers. Edmund moved troops south towards the city, ostensibly placing them into barracks on the city's outskirts, but the implied threat was read by Rhys for what it was. Lacking troops to counter the Dugs move, Rhys had to wait to see if Cystennin would recover. In the October of 1843, Cystennin recovered and Rhys' attempt to gain power was exposed to, though not believed, by Cystennin. His advisors however engineered the dismissal of Elphin and the appointment of Gwillym Tomos, Archesgob Aberhonddu (Archbishop of Brecon) as canghellor (a nod back to the days of the Canghellorion Eglwysig (ecclesiastical chancellors) of the 1600's (and he would be the last churchman to hold senior office in Wales)
Gwillym Tomos would prove to be one of the most dynamic canghellorion in the pre-election period and took a firm grip of the cabinet and government. However, he was blind to the activities in the far north. Rhys had learned his lessons from 1843 and ordered his brother, Meurig, to form the core of what would become the Byddin Frenhinol Eryri (Royal Snowdonia Army). The rumblings of this were heard in the south, but the decade or so of North/South divisons played their part in keeping the government largely unaware of the happenings in Gwynedd. Sufficient rumours were listened to however for the Uchel Reoli'r Fyddin (Army High Command) to send covert investigators and in March 1844 soliders from Y Catrawd Llwyd (The Grey Regiment) reported infantry and artillery training in Yr Wyddfa mountain range. Edmund, Dug Y Mers along with ministers from the Swyddfa Rhyfel took their suspicions to Cystennin who dissmissed their concerns.
With the secret defection of the Bataliwn 1af, Gard Troedfilwyr Brenhinoedd (Llewod Du) 1st Batt,Kings Infantry Guard to Rhys's army, the stage was set. In the sping of 1845, Cystennin decided on a Royal Tour of Tyddewi, Dyfed and Ceredigion, not realising that the Ieirll of Aberteifi and Ceredigion were both in the Gwyneddian camp. On the 31st August 1845, with the Royal Yacht moored off Ynys Aberteifi, the king travelled by schooner to the new Cei Teifi in the town. fthe soldiers of the Bataliwn 1af struck. As the king approached the High Street from Quay Street, with the Castell in view, the soldiers formed a square around the king, with the soliders aiming their rifles and firing. Cystennin was struck over 20 times. As the king lay dying on the cobbled streets, the officer, Is-Milwriad Gethin o Bethesda, panicked. Ordering his men to march north under the banner of the Princes of Gwynedd. The Iarll Aberteifi heard the commotion from the castell. As he emerged he saw the crowds surrounding the slain king, peoples voices raised in anger. Seeing the troops heading for the road to Aberporth, he ordered for his horse and rode for the north himself.
The news of the kings assassination reached the capital swiftly, following not long after by his body which was laid in state at Eglwys Gadeiriol Llandaf. Archesgob and Canghellor, Gwillym Tomos, acted swiftly along with the young heir to the throne. Summoning an Esgyniad Seneddm, most Seneddwyrs from the kingdom attended, with the exception of those from Gwynedd, Ceredigion and parts of northern Powys. Aclaimed king at the meeting, Rhisiart and Tomos planned Cystennin's funeral. With Tyddewi silent, the Esgob Llandaf oversaw the annointing of Rhisiart as Tywysog Morgannwg. With the funeral over, Tomos summoned the Senedd back into session. Royal government was semi-paralysed with the death of Cystennin, the relative youth of Rhisiart (15 at the time of his father's death) and with Rhys in open rebellion, the Cyngor Brenhiniol was unable to function. Into this breach strode Tomos and the first working, effective Cabinet government of Wales in modern times. Still respectful of the limitations Tomos finely balanced this against the monarch's autocratic rights, but a precedent was set.
The Civil War 1845-48[]
During the Civil War, the royal Senedd in Caerdydd was a key supporter of Rhisiart III. During 1845 and 1846, the Senedd continued to meet in the Neuadd Mawr in Palas Caerdydd, authorising the raising of taxes, the Swyddfa Ryfel co-ordinating the movement of troops to the front line. The Cabinet of Gwilym Tomos also took over effective control of the executive functions of government with the king comanding the army. With the advance, however, of Prince Meurig, many politicians took up arms to fight on the eastern front. Notable Seneddwyrs included Tomos Preece, Fychan Griffith, Arthur Penhellion, all dying at Clehwngr in the March. With the advancing Gwyneddian forces, many other politicians fled to Caerodor, before being called back to Caerdydd by a disgusted Rhisiart.
With the fall of the arsenals in both Amwythig and Llywdlo the Senedd needed to find rifles for the army. The Northern forces were largely armed with Baker rifle (officially known as the Pattern 1800 Infantry Rifle) which the Welsh army had been purchasing from the Anglo-Scots since 1805 however the captured arsenals had held the newer Brunswick rifle. The armys arsenals in Caerffili and Caerodor only held the older Baker rifles. Using contacts in America, the Senedd managed to procure a significant shipment of Springfield Model 1842 rifles as well as a shipment of Bavarian Model 1842 musket from the Kingdom of Bavaria. These newer rifles counterbalanced the loss of the Brunswick armaments.
During 1846, there were of course two senedd. The Llandeilo and the Caerdydd Senedd. Both voted to not recognise the other as the legitimate body of government and both voted to recognise their respective man as king. With Rhys II and Rhisiart III both voted the crown and Rhys was subsequently crowned in Llandeilo to that effect. The Caerdydd Senedd however, had a distinct advantage; it still controlled the major economic heartlands of South Wales, and still controlled considerable tax raising capabilities, something the Northern Senedd did not possess. Caerdydd also voted to cast as traitors the men on the other side of the fence. During 1846, with Rhisiart concentrating totally on the war, the government of Gwilym Tomos was able to consolidate its gains the previous year, producing the first fully functional Welsh government, independent of the Cyngor Brenhiniol in Welsh history.
Government ministers were appointed to head ministries and the Finance Department expanded it tax raising powers to fund the war. As the war progressed into 1847 Rhisiart was able to devote more time to governing. With the royal success at both the battles of Caerfyrddin and Rhosan ar Wy the war was moving north and although Rhisiart continued to command the army, he began to summon the Cabinet to meet him on his journey north. In April 1847, he also summoned his first Cyngor Brenhiniol. The Canghellor was an astute political mover, and Gwillym Tomos managed to retain many of the governments advances, including government by cabinet, though with the appointing of a new Arglwydd Lywydd (Lord President) of the Cyngor Brenhiniol tensions rose within government circles over the direction of government policy.
1847 saw more laws being passed by the Senedd since the days of Hywel III but a poor harvest and mismanagement of fund caused a scandal in Caerdydd which damaged his administration. However, without the civil war and the opportunities it present, the Senedd would have remained the curious half institution it had been since the reigns of Rhisiart I and II. The gaining of the powers it now possessd would have been impossible during peacetime. The price however was that government, the Ty Isod and the cabinet had to deal with an increasingly precarious Wales. The civil war had left the country poor, and in threat of famine. Tomos's strong government had helped prevent the total collapse of royal authority until the war was concluded, but now that it was, what was the future?
The 2nd Ricardian Era - Conflict Between Crown and Senedd[]
The period between 1848 and 1904 saw the tussle between Crown and Senedd enter its final phase. The canghellor, Gwillym Tomos remained in post until 1851 and continued to enjoy a close relationship with Rhisiart III, but the tensions and strains between the various arms of government were evident from the immediate aftermath of the Civil War.
The Years 1848 - 70[]
The year 1848 was a tumultuous one. The end of the war saw famine stalk the land, with the potatoe blight hitting, coupled with poor harvests in 1848, 49 and 1850. The economy was ruined from the division of war, with the government owing large sums to the American government and the Anglo-Scottish government. The wave of revolutions sweeping mainland Europe affected the Welsh inteligensia as well, with republicans and constitutional monarchists in their own ways attempting to change the way Wales was governed. Luckily the attempted revolutions were disparate in nature, lacking any common goal across all sections and lacking any charismatic leader unifying all elements together and Tomos along with Rhisiart were able to combat them. Rhisiart produced an order in council supporting the new role of cabinet government and the various ministries which had sprung up over the last decade or so. Where conciliation failed, the army was used instead to crack down on the more extremist revolutionaries. The government therefore came out of this period enhanced in stature if not in additional powers. The main item of dispute between Senedd and King in this period was the treatment of Rhys, Tywysog Gwynedd. Tomos and the leaders in the Senedd, wanted him tried by the Senedd, convicted and executed. The king vacillated. Imprisoning the captured prince in his summer hunting lodge Castell Coch instead. The arguments in the Royal Chambers in 1848 grew to be well known by outsiders as canghellor and king clashed. By 1852 Rhys himself took matters into his own hands, by attempting to escape his captivity, Rhys forced Rhisiart's hand into agreeing with the Senedd and Rhys was finally executed on the 30th June 1852. Tomos himself did not live to see this victory however, pre-deceasing the northern prince. Rhisiart replaced him with Dug Edmund Y Mers, ignoring totally the wishes of Cabinet and the man who expected to succeed Tomos (Ithel ap Gwion Roberts). Rhisiart's act in replacing Tomos was calculated. The Senedd and the Ty Isod in particular, had grown more powerful over the last ten years and the Cyngor Brenhiniol was concerned at the errosion of the kings power. By chosing the next canghellor he reminded those in office that their positions were tenuous, that he could replace any of them as he saw fit.