Russia (An Honorable Retelling)

Russian Republic Российская Республика Timeline: An Honorable Retelling
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem:  Прощание славянки "Farewell of Slavianka"
Location of Russia (green)
Capital (and largest city)		Moscow
Official languages		Russian
Demonym		Russian
Government		Federal semi-presidential constitutional republic
-	President	Boris Nemtsov
-	Prime Minister	Kazimir Kahele
Legislature		Constituent Assembly
-	Upper house	State Council
-	Lower house	State Duma
Establishment
-	Tsardom of Russia	16 January 1547
-	Monarchy abolished	27 May 1917
-	First constitution	5 April 1919
-	Current constitution	17 June 1988
Currency		Russian ruble (₽) (RUB)
Drives on the		right

Russia (Russian: Россия), officially the Russian Republic (Russian: Российская Республика) is a nation located across Eurasia, bordered by the United Commonwealths, Esti, Finland, Karelia, Denmark-Norway, Cossackia, Ukraine, Cumania, Buryatia, Kirghizia, China, Korea, and sharing a maritime border with Japan. With a landmass spanning eastern Europe and northern Asia, Russia remains the largest country in the world by area, with the vastness of its land being a historical trait of Russia.

Tracing its origins to the Kieven Rus, Russia would be dominated by several principalities before being unified under a centralized Russian state by Ivan IV in 1547 in what is now known as the Tsardom of Russia. After a campaign of rapid conquest and expansion throughout the 1600 and 1700s, Russia would come to control most of North Asia and large swaths of eastern Europe. Following a loss to Sweden and Lublin in the Great Northern War, Peter the Great would reorganise the Tsardom into the Russian Empire in 1721. The Russian Empire began focusing on increasing settlement and colonisation in East Asia and Columbia after being blocked off in Europe. By 1800, the empire had stretched from Moscow all the way to modern-day Baranov and northern Kosuto.

A member of the League to Enforce Peace, the Global Treaty Organization, the European Community, and the Orthodox Christian Economic Community, Russia has emerged as one of the largest economies in the world. Russia ranks high on the Global Democracy Index, the Human Development Index, and the Global Happiness Index.

History

Early history

Extent of the Kievan Rus' after the death of Yaroslav I in 1054

Kievan Rus

Russia, alongside Ukraine, can trace its origins back to the state of the Kievan Rus. Prior to the formation of the Kievan Rus, the area around the Black Sea was dominated by various tribes of eastern Slavs including the Novgorod Slavs, the Krivichs, the Poliane, and the Severians. The various eastern Slavic tribes were eventually consolidated under the rule of the Varangians, Viking conquerors, traders and settlers who originated from Scandinavia. By the 9th century, the Varangians were described as establishing tribute among the east Slavic and Finnic tribes in Eastern Europe.

The first leader of a centralised Kievan Rus state was Rurik, who was invited to rule the Rus in Novgorod in 862. The abundance of natural resources and a slave trade led to the new Kievan state experiencing a period of economic prosperity. During this time, Christianity also had spread to the Kievan Rus as trade with the Eastern Roman Empire and contact with the Black Sea Greeks led to a centuries-long process of Christianity being institutionalized. Under the rule of Vladimir the Great, the Kievan Rus' would adopt officially Christianity as the state religion, fermenting an alliance with the Eastern Roman Empire and formally institutionalizing Orthodox Christianity in the region.

Despite the strength of the Kievan Rus at its peak, the state would begin to weaken due to various internal and external factors. The Eastern Roman Empire, the Rus’ strongest ally and trading partner, experienced a period of decline due to various Turkic and catholic invasions on the Empire which left the Rus alienated. Internally, the Rus’ would be plagued by infighting between principalities, further spreading instability. The arrival of the Cuman–Kipchak Confederation in the 1200s dealt the death blow to the Kievan Rus, with the Rus officially coming an end following the Cuman Siege of Kiev in 1240.

Vlad the Impaler, Grand Prince of Moscow (1460 - 1466), the controversial ruler who is credited for starting the unification process with Novgorod.

"Ivan the Terrible" (Ivan IV), Grand Prince and first Tsar of all Russia

Tsardom of Russia

In many ways, the Tsardom of Russia can find its origins in the emulation of the Eastern Roman Empire. The powerful autocratic rulers of the Grand Duchy of Moscow began to take on the title of Tsar. The title of Tsar (царь) represents the Slavic adaptation of the Roman Imperial title/name Caesar), emulating the Eastern Roman Empire in the process. An early Grand Prince of Moscow and emulator of Eastern Roman Governance was Vlad Dracula of Wallachia, who had inherited the title of Grand Prince of Moscow through a Cuman-backed coup. As Grand Prince, Vlad would fight a series of skirmishes and conflicts against the Novgorod Republic. Through a series of gruesome warfare, he was given the nickname of Vlad the Impaler. Vlad would die fighting Novgorod forces in 1466, passing the throne back to Ivan III of Moscow. Ivan III's liberation of Moscow from Vlad and continuation of Moscow's expansion would grant him the nickname Ivan the Great. This process of war with Novgorod under Vlad and Ivan III is often credited for being the start of the Tsardom of Russia in the modern understanding of the term.

The autocratic powers of the Tsar began to especially consolidate under the rule of Ivan IV, the Grand Prince of Moscow. Under the rule of Ivan IV, Moscow began to consolidate power amongst the shattered principalities which dotted the territory of the former Kievan Rus'. During this era, Moscow's biggest competitor was the Novgorod Republic, which was significantly more liberal and democratic than other states of the former Rus. However, the power dynamics had begun to shift in Moscow's favor by the mid 1400s. Novgorod would be conquered by Moscow in 1478 after years of competition and fighting between the two cities. The Muscovite conquest of Novgorod eventually led to the formation of the Tsardom of Russia in 1547.

The formation of the Tsardom of Russia in 1547 would mark a period of rapid expansion within the Empire. Russia had begun a process of neutralizing and conquering various khanates and other Turkic peoples at the periphery of the empire. The Crimean Khanate would be pushed out of the Tsardom following the Battle of Molodi, as well as the subjugation of various North Asian Turkic tribes following Russia's eastward expansion. From 1550 to 1700, Russia grew by 35,000 square kilometers (14,000 sq mi) per year. By 1700, Russia had reached the Pacific Ocean through what is now modern-day Siberia. Despite various successes in Asia, Russia would face serious opposition to their standing in Europe going into the 1700s.

Great Northern War and eastward expansion

From 1700 to 1721, the Tsardom of Russia would fight a prolonged war against the Swedish Empire and the Commonwealth of Lublin (known then as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth), now known as the Great Northern War. After decades of fighting, the Russian army would be outmatched in the Baltic Sea by the Swedish navy, outmatched in Finland by the Swedish army, and outmatched on the European continent by the Lublin army. On 6 November 1721, the Treaty of Gothenburg would be signed which solidified Swedish control over Finland and Karelia while also establishing Lublin as the dominant power in Eastern Europe.

The initial loss in the Great Northern War would prove devastating for Russia, with the country having lost large portions of farmlands and population centres, sparking a peasant revolt in the wake of the loss in the conflict. However, the Tsardom would be saved by the bold leadership of Tsar Peter I.

Russian Empire (1721-1917)

Expansions into Asia, the Pacific, and Columbia

Under the leadership of Tsar Peter I, the Tsardom of Russia would be reorganized into the Russian Empire, with his title becoming Emperor of all Russia (tsar). The loss in Europe would cause Peter to being focusing more eastward in order to compensate for lost territories and to pursue the search of a warm water port elsewhere. Part of this eastern expansion plan was the creation of a new capital city in eastern Russia, and the rapid settlement and expansion into the Columbian continent via Alaska. By the 1740s, the Great Northern Expeditions were at hand.

Peter the Great in France

To encourage settlement into Alaska, incentives such as a lack of taxation were provided to encourage whole families to move to the territory. Similarly, Serfdom was abolished in all Russian territories in Columbia. These incentives proved to work, with 400,000 Russians settling Alaska during the period of 1740-1780, prompting expansion South into what is now modern-day Saint Hermansburg and northern Kosuto. Russian border expansions in Columbia were temporarily halted by the outbreak of the First Great War in Europe. Despite being halted expansion in Columbia, Russia would excel militarily in Europe during the war. Russian forces won a decisive victory at the Siege of Berlin in 1762, resulting in the First Prussian Partition.

However, the Russian colonization of Columbia would not come without contention, as the Russians faced opposition from the Mexican Empire to its south which had begun the process of consolidating control over Kosuto following its conquest of the territory from Japan. The competing geopolitics interests of Russia and Mexica would bring the two nations into war starting in 1768 and ending in 1773. The Russo-Mexican War ended with no major border changes, but saw the establishment of Russian control over all territory north of Kosuto’s borders.

By 1800, there were over 1 million Russians who had settled the lands of Alaska, displacing many Native Colombians and Mexican settlers in the process. The city of Saint Hermansburg would also be settled in 1830, named after the recently deceased and canonized Saint Herman of Alaska. The establishment of Saint Hermansburg gave the Russian Empire its first warm water port that it had sought out for decades in both Europe and Columbia. With Mexican hegemony challenged, the Russians would face a new challenge in their territorial holdings: the English-speaking United States of Columbia which had just conquered Kosuto and began the rapid settlement of the west coast of the continent. During the initial Kosuto Gold Rush of the 1840s, the Russian and Japanese settlers of the west coast found themselves in conflict with the Anglo-Columbians who had begun to emigrate to Kosuto and Russian Oregon in large numbers. Ethnic conflicts between Anglo-Columbians and Russian settlers in Alaska led to the colony to be reorganized into the Governate of Alaska in 1850.

Russian ambitions in the Pacific did not just stop in Columbia but had also spread to other areas of the Pacific, putting the Empire in direct conflict with the stagnant Japanese Empire. In 1815, a large Russian fleet associated with the Russian-Columbian Company would conquer the Japanese-held Hawaiian Islands, establishing the settlement of Fort Elizabeth in what is now modern-day Gavayi.

Conversion of Native Columbian tribes by the Russian Orthodox Church (c. 1860)

Around this same time, southern Siberia experienced prosperity and an industrial boom due to the rapid population growth of settlers in the region brought on by the incentive structure. Ever since the early 1700s, there was plans by Peter the Great to move the Russian capital eastward due to the perceived vulnerability of Moscow to Commonwealth incursions. This led to the commissioning of a planned capital city on Russia’s pacific coast and large financial investments to build up a Russian Pacific Navy. The planned capital city, Rim-on-Amur (lit. meaning “Rome on Amur”) was completed in 1820 and resumed the function as the capital in 1825. The completion of Rim-on-Amur led to further settlement and industrialization of Southeastern Siberia, primarily benefiting port cities such as Vladivostok. However, following the death of Tsar Nicholas I in 1855, the capital was moved back to Saint Petersburg while Siberia continued to industrialize.

In 1867, following the consolidation of the English possessions in North America into a singular commonwealth known as Cabotia, relations between Russia and England began to rapidly deteriorate. Despite prior disputes with the United States due to Columbian settlers in Alaska, both Russia and the U.S. would form a strategic partnership to counter immediate threats on the continent. Most notably, England in Cabotia and the French-influenced Grand Confederation of Columbia.

Leadup to the Third Great War (1880-1913)

See also: Third Great War

While the Russian Empire had succeeded in securing its positions in Columbia, it still faced many threats in Eurasia. Most notable was the Persian Empire, which had conquered Georgia and Armenia in 1797 and had been fighting with Russia in the Northern Caucuses ever since. Renewed tensions between Russia and Persia would occur again in 1889 following the Persian conquest of Khiva in March of that year. The status quo in Central Asia had been a great game between Russia and Persia in which the Kingdom of Khiva had acted as a buffer state. However, the conquest of created a hard border with Persia and Russian-occupied Cumania, increasing the risk of conflict in the region. To its west, the declining Swedish Empire became more actively confrontational with Russia in Karelia, deploying an additional 30,000 troops to the Russian border in 1906, sparking a brief diplomatic crisis between both countries.

Turkic revolutionaries massacred in Transoxiana (1903)

At the same time, the rise of nationalism had weakened the Russian Empire internally, with Turkic groups in the Russian Governate of Transoxiana attempting a revolution in 1903 which was brutally suppressed. At around the same time, Russian Jews became more confrontational against the Tsarist state due to centuries of institutionalized antisemitism and the rise of various socialist movements within the Empire. This resulted in various pogroms against Russian Jews in the early 1900s and the resurgence of a fierce Russian nationalism that sought to re-establish Russian hegemony in Europe and purge the empire of outside and internal threats.

Nicholas II, Tsar of Russia at the start of the Third Great War

On 6 June 1913, Russian intelligence would intercept a telegram from Sweden to Lublin, asking the country to join it in a war against Russia to strengthen their standing in Europe. Lublin, due to their historical rivalry with Sweden and a desire not to alienate Orthodox Christians within the commonwealth in a war against Russia, ultimately declined the offer despite previous wars against Russia. The interception of this telegram and a planned Swedish war against Europe outraged Russian diplomats, sparking the June crisis. Despite efforts to negotiate, negotiations fell apart on 29 June 1913 when Russian troops attacked Swedish Karelia, marking the start of war in Europe.

The Third Great War and the Russian Revolution (1913-1917)

Irish-French General Ned Cronin was hired by Persian Emperor Bahram VII to serve as High Commander of the Persian military. His use of modern equipment and encirclement tactics won Persia several victories in the Central Asian campaign.

While Tsar Nicholas hoped the war would boost Russian morale and re-establish Russia as a major power in Europe, the opposite ended up occurring. In Central Asia, Russian soldiers found themselves outnumbered and outgunned by Persian forces. With the Persian military receiving top-of-the line French equipment and training from the French army, their tactics proved far more effective than the Russian plan of fighting a war of attrition. Many of the Manichaeist people of Russian-occupied Central Asia also had more loyalty to Persia than Russia, leading to local communities within Russia defecting to the Persian side. Despite the few Russian naval victories in the Caspian Sea, including a decisive Russian naval victory in the Battle of Babolsar, Persia had dealt serious damage to the Russian military and Russian morale in Central Asia. On 7 June 1916, the Persian forces would push as far as Cumania, capturing the city of Tselinograd. By 1917, it was believed that over 400,000 Russian soldiers died in the Central Asian theatre alone.

In Europe, Russia fared slightly better, being able to hold the city of Saint Petersburg against various Swedish incursions. With Lublin acting as a buffer between Russia and the Continental Powers, Russia did not suffer nearly as many frontline casualties as it did in Central Asia. However, modest victories against Sweden in Karelia and the Baltic Sea were not enough to boost the morale of the Russian citizenry and soldiers. At the same time, the Tsar ignored any efforts by Russian liberals and socialists to conduct internal political reform or end the war. By late 1916, there were reports of Russian soldiers defecting and mutinying from their position. The collapse of Lublin following Ukraine's independence and subsequent waves of refugees reaching Russia did not help the situation either.

By March of 1917, the Russian Revolution had erupted in Saint Petersburg with a loose coalition of liberals, social democrats, socialists, and the Bolsheviks being instrumental bringing down the Tsar. On 16 March 1917, Nicholas II had abdicated the throne and was preparing to flee to Alaska where Tsarist loyalism was at its highest.

Russian Republic (1917-present)

Russian Revolution and instability (1917-1920)

When discussing the revolution, many historians point to several long-term causes such as the Tsars' refusal to reform, vicious repressions by the government against political dissidents and ethnic minorities, and an archaic economic system. However, most rhetoric in the leadup to the revolution points out the short-term ailments plaguing Russia, such as the aforementioned Russian defeats in Central Asia and very recent uprisings led by Jews, Central Asians, and Turks. As a result, it was a culmination of long-term and short-term ailments which ultimately brought down Tsar Nicholas II's regime in 1917.

Anton Denikin, Russian monarchist and "Supreme Regent of the Russian Empire in-exile" in Alaska

In the cities, it was a coalition of disaffected soldiers, working-class women, educated university students, socialist revolutionaries, and liberal/social democratic politicians who overthrew the Tsar and drove out monarchists and loyalists. In the countryside, it was various ethnic minorities such as the Cumans, Kipchaks, Transoxianan Turks, and Ashkenazi Jews who seized power from the Tsarist-aligned aristocracy. Okhrana efforts to put down these rebellions were overwhelmed, and the organization ceased to exist in mainland Russia by early 1917. In the midst of this chaos, the Tsar and his family were captured by revolutionaries and placed under house arrest in Saint Petersburg.

While the revolution would prove successful and popular in mainland Russia, loyalist sentiment was rather high in Alaska. Historians have largely attributed this to the fact that Alaska was far away from any major frontline in the Third Great War and thus didn't experience the same demoralization from the war that the rest of Russia did. Other historians have attributed the higher loyalist sentiment in Alaska to be due to the higher degree of political stability present in the colony due to economic stimulation via trade with the United States and Mexica. Popular royalist sentiment in Alaska led to Anton Denikin, a Russian military leader assigned to an outpost near the Cabotian border, to publicly reject the Russian Revolution as a "Jewish plot" and proclaimed himself "Supreme Regent of the Russian Empire in-exile" until the Tsar was freed.

Georgy Lvov, President of Russia (1917-1920)

Meanwhile, a provisional government would be established on March 16th in Saint Petersburg with Georgy Lvov as Prime Minister. The provisional government would gain immediate recognition from the United States and later on England, Mali, France, and Lublin. The Republic would officially negotiate Russia's exit from the Third Great War with the eventual signing of the Lyvov-Cochrin Treaty on 5 April 1917, seeing Russia formally renounce its claims to Central Asia, the Caucuses, and even Transoxiana. Various Cossacks, fearing the republic would take away their military honors, had also defected to the Persian cause, allowing for the establishment of an independent Cossack state as part of the treaty. The harsh terms of the treaty would be met with outrage by Russian nationalists, who viewed the liberals as signing away Central Asia to Persian hegemony. As a result, Russian nationalists would rally behind Lavr Kornilov, who would attempt a coup against Georgy Lvov's government in May 1917 before he was eventually thwarted.

While the Russian Republic faced heavy criticism for exiting Great War III in defeat, liberal politicians would defend their actions later on for stabilizing the country and for delegitimizing more radical groups such as the Bolsheviks who ran their campaign on the slogan of "peace, land, and bread." With the war over, the Lvov's liberal bloc was able to garner support among the Russian troops and Russian military families for bringing the troops home. No external threats from France, Sweden, or Persia also allowed for the government to take further measures in internally stabilizing itself, eventually banning "illiberal elements" of Russian society (such as Bolsheviks and Ultranationalists) from holding power in the Constituent Assembly.

Vladimir Lenin (1870-1918), Bolshevik revolutionary who attempted to overthrow the Russian Republic in 1917.

Vladimir Lenin, chief Bolshevik revolutionary at the time, realized that the consolidation of power by the liberals in the Provisional Government had the potential to threaten the long-term viability of the Bolshevik movement. As a result, he and top Bolshevik officials began plotting a coup attempt in the capital city of Saint Petersburg by utilizing their position within the Saint Petersburg Soviet to seize control over the Provisional Assembly and forcefully dissolve the Russian Republic. At this point, the Bolsheviks had been dwindling in numbers as the end of the war and the return of some form of economic stability led many in the rank-in-file to join more moderate socialist factors. As a result, Lenin and Trotsky overestimated the support that the Bolsheviks had. In the early hours of 16 September 1917, the Bolsheviks would attempt to seize the Constituent Assembly by force, but were intercepted by soldiers stationed within the city. Vladimir Lenin was subsequently put on trial and executed for treason on 14 April 1918. Leon Trotsky had fled to Germany to avoid execution. Other Bolsheviks fled into Persia, which was in the midst of its own socialist revolution by 1919, and others fled to Transoxiana.

The eradication of the Bolsheviks marked the end of any substantial violent internal opposition to the liberals, allowing for the laxing of restrictions on civil liberties and the planning of an eventual general election scheduled for November 1920. Political stability also resulted in the Provisional Government officially being disbanded in 1919 following the ratification of the First Russian Constitution, officially establishing the Russian Republic. At the same time, the Russian Republic would enter negotiations with the exiled-Russian Empire in Alaska despite neither state recognizing each other. This led to the freeing of Tsar Nicholas and his family, who subsequently fled to Alaska and were welcomed in by Anton Denikin who renounced his claim as regent.

Democratization and presidency of Alexander Kerensky (1920-1932)

Despite a tumultuous first few years, the Republic had largely stabilized by early 1920. Breakaway states such as Cossackia, Cumania, Transoxiana, and Gavayi were recognized. Economically, Russia slowly began recovering as the country had begun trading with the United States, Lublin, and Rhomania. While Georgy Lvov and the Progressives had helped stabilize the early republic, it had come with an immense toll on Georgy Lvov who suffered immense stress. Following a stress-induced heart attack in April 1920, Lvov announced he would not run for a second term. This news came as a shock to the Russian people and to the Progressive Party which was now left without a charismatic leader.

Alexander Kerensky, President of Russia (1920-1932)

Despite stability, pre-revolution income inequality and ethnic discrimination had still remained a large problem in Russia. Many Jewish people and non-Russians felt that the new government and the Progressive Party were not addressing their concerns. As a result, many of them ended up supporting the Popular Socialist Party led by Alexander Kerensky, a charismatic Russian legislator who had become the face of the Socialist movement following the purging of the Bolsheviks. Kerensky championed democratic socialism, agrarianism, and civil rights for Jews and other ethnic and religious minorities. This party platform led to Kerensky building a large electoral coalition of working-class Russians, Jews, Buryats, women, and the peasantry. This resulted in Kerensky winning the 1920 general election against Progressive candidate Aleksandr Konovalov with 58% of the popular vote. Kerensky would be inaugurated as the country's second President on 5 December 1920.

During the first few years of Kerensky's Presidency, the administration had begun a policy of transformative social and economic policy. While women's suffrage had been legalized prior to the 1920 election, Kerensky and the Popular Socialists would push through a constitutional amendment to permanently enshrine women's suffrage. In 1923, the Constituent Assembly would narrowly pass the Civil Rights Act of 1923, guaranteeing Russian Jews the right to freely worship, abolishing the Pale of Settlement thus allowing Jews to live alongside Russians in major cities, and protecting Jews from pogroms and other forms of discrimination. The bill also allowed for ethnic minorities such as Buryats, the Volga Bulgarians, Indigenous Siberians, and various Turks to form their own autonomous republics within Russia. The bill proved extremely controversial among the religious right and the Russian Orthodox Church, leading to the Popular Socialists losing their majority in the lower house of the Constituent Assembly. However, all efforts to repeal the Civil Rights Act ultimately failed and these efforts had largely died off by 1940.

"I tried to shoot Kerensky because I consider him a traitor. Due to the fact that he lives for a long time, the onset of socialism is postponed for decades." - Fanny Kaplan

Fanny Kaplan, the woman who attempted to assassinate President Kerensky

In terms of economic policy, Kerensky adopted a policy of export-oriented growth by engaging with the international market. Starting in 1925, Russia had begun to utilize its massive oil reserves and began the process of exporting crude oil to Europe, Asia, and the Western Hemisphere. This decision would prove to be deeply unpopular with the left flank of the Popular Socialists who felt that Kerensky betrayed the principles of democratic socialism and adopted a market capitalist mode of production. Kerensky's decision did receive support among the social democratic faction of the Popular Socialists as well as the Russian bourgeoisie. The polarizing opinions on this economic policy would ultimately lead to Fanny Kaplan, a disgruntled former socialist revolutionary, attempting to shoot Kerensky outside the Winter Palace on 8 June 1926. While Kerensky ultimately survived, he would grow increasingly paranoid of a coup or violent revolution occurring again.

Despite the polarization of the Russian left-wing surrounding this oil-oriented industrialization, it would ultimately pay off for the Russian economy. By 1935, Russia had emerged as the largest exporter and producer of crude oil in the world. It was also around this time that the Russian capital was moved to Moscow due to the rapid industrialization that the city was undergoing. A nationalized Russian railroad also allowed for an easier internal flow of commerce, spurring economic growth and industrialization in many of the cities along the railroads. This economic initial economic growth would be the precursor to the Russian Economic Miracle that would occur in the 1950s.

Interwar years and the Fourth Great War (1932-1946)

Andrei Ivanovich Shingarev, President of Russia (1932-1948)

After serving 3 terms, Alexander Kerensky would announce that he would not seek re-election to a fourth term in the upcoming 1932 general election. The Progressives, having won a majority in both chambers of the Constituent Assembly in the 1930 Russian parliamentary elections, were the favored party to win the presidency against a fractured Popular Socialist Party. Ultimately, this would prove true as Progressive Andrei Ivanovich Shingarev would defeat Socialist Venedikt Miakotin in the 1932 election with 63% of the popular vote. Shingarev would be inaugurated as the President the following month on 5 December 1932.

While Kerensky was a proponent of trade with elements of protectionism to protect the Russian working class, Shingarev was a proponent of free market trade with minimal restrictions. Shingarev and other economic liberals believed that it would be through increased trade that Russia could accumulate more wealth and investment from foreign countries. While Russia's gross domestic produce would nominally grow during Shingarev's Presidency, critics and protectionists alleged that Shingarev was undermining the young republic's economic independence and making it increasingly reliant on Columbian, Scottish, and Rhomanian investments. Due to the impact of the Great Depression worldwide, investment throughout the 1930s remained slower than Shingarev would have liked, slowing industrialization efforts in the process as well. Russia, still not caught up with the rest of Europe in terms of industrializing, was particularly at risk going into the Fourth Great War.

Sergey Taboritsky, the Prime Minister of Alaska who declared war on Russia in 1942

Following the invasion of Wallonia-Luxembourg by fascist France in 1938, the world would once again be plunged into another Great War. While Russia strongly condemned the invasion, the country initially took a stance of neutrality, with Shingarev fearing another period of instability and heavy losses as had occurred during the Third Great War. There was also skepticism over how effective Russia's military capacities were due to the country's largely unindustrialized state and Russia not fighting a large-scale war in over a decade. When France eventually conquered Germany and began a push into Lublin, Russia had begun a lend-lease policy and began providing Lublin with crude oil and other raw materials to assist in any way possible while not officially entering the war up until that point.

Meanwhile, the Russian Empire in Alaska had fallen to fascism, with the Tsar blaming "international Jewry" as causing the fall of the Russian Empire and establishment of the Republic. Alaskan Prime Minister Sergey Taboritsky saw the chaos in Europe as an opportunity to declare war on the "Jewish-occupied Russian Republic" and informally did so following a vicious attack on Russia's pacific fleet in the Bering Strait on 6 June 1942. With Russian sailors killed, Russia officially entered the Fourth Great War and began mobilizing men across the country to fight in the European and Pacific theatres.

Starting in late 1942, over 100,000 Russians would be mobilized to reinforce Lublin in the European theatre while the Russian Pacific Fleet would be fully mobilized and begin assisting Japan against the Alaskans. At the same time, Columbia began a lend lease program, sending tons of military equipment to Russia in the process.

Russian Orthodox priests blessing Russian soldiers (1943)

The Russian Pacific Fleet under the command of Admiral Aleksandr Vasilevsky would win several decisive victories against the Alaskans starting in early 1943. The Russian navy would deal serious damage to the Alaskans at the Battle of Unimak Island, destroying the Alaskan Naval Base on the island and allowing for the Japanese to continue their assault on Alaska's maritime borders. In Europe, the Russian army would be greatly beneficial to Lublin, allowing the Lubliner armies to fill manpower deficits which helped turn the tide during the Liberation of Krakow, the Battle of Berlin, and the Battle of Paris.

Following the end of the Fourth Great War on 21 June 1946, victory parades erupted in all major Russian cities. The Fourth Great War allowed for Russia to rapidly industrialize and expand their economy through arms sales and exporting crude oil. As a result, Russia went from a relatively under-industrialized country in Europe to the European country with the second-highest industrial capacity by 1950, only trailing Germany. The war did not come without a cost, however. Over 200,000 Russian soldiers had died over the course of the conflict, the 5th highest death toll in the allied powers. Many war songs were written to commemorate the sacrifice of the Russian military during the war.

Cold War (1946-1990)

James Forrestal, the U.S. president who signed a mutual defense treaty with the Russian Republic

Dawn of the "Special Relationship" (1946)

"There is no closer ally the United States has than the Russian Republic. We are united in our common commitment to democracy, multilateralism, and the rules-based international order." - U.S. Secretary of State Jeffrey DeLaurentis (1995)

During the course of the Fourth Great War, diplomatic relations between the United States and Russia had further improved. The United States provided Russia with munitions and other heavy weapons while Russia was crucial in helping weaken the Alaskan navy, allowing for the United States to more effectively invade Alaska. Due to both countries being large, multiethnic and cross-continental democracies, political theorists began to speculate about a "special relationship" between the two countries in which they both served as each other's closest ally.

On 7 December 1946, Russian President Andrei Shingarev would visit U.S. President James Forrestal at the Executive Mansion in Philadelphia. This marked the first formal visit of a Russian head of state to the United States. Both countries would formally pass a Mutual Defense Treaty, passing the United States Senate one month later and passing through the Russian Constituent Assembly 2 weeks after that. This mutual defense treaty is often credited as being the precursor to the Global Treaty Organization, which would be created a year later.

Russian Economic Miracle (1950-1970)

Wassily Leontief, responsible for the Russian Economic Miracle

The Russian Economic Miracle refers to a record period of economic growth in Russia, between the end of the Fourth Great War and the year 1970, that started with the presidency of Wassily Leontief. Leontief, graduated from the University of Saint Petersburg, served as the fourth president of the Russian Republic and is considered to be one of the greatest economists of all time. He encouraged trade with the western world, especially with the United States, Rhomania and other European countries. A policy of soft power in Eastern Europe also helped expand Russian influence and therefore improve economic relations with other nations.

During Leontief's tenure, Russia emerged as a major oil exporter thanks to reserves in West and East Siberia. Simultaneously, the arms industry benefited from border tensions with Cossackia and Persia.

Border conflicts with Persia, Cossackia and China (1946-1988)

Russian Buryat soldiers patrolling the border with Cumania (1952)

Throughout the Cold War, a reoccurring issue for Russia would be sharing a hard border with Socialist and Fascist-aligned countries. Cossackia and China were both ruled by far-right dictatorships and thus aligned with the Fascist Bloc during the Cold War. In Central Asia, Russia had to contend with the People's Republic of Persia and its satellite states consisting of Khiva, Chagatai, Cumania, and Transoxiana. The first and most vicious border skirmish would occur in late 1948 between Russia and the Socialist Republic of Cumania, resulting in the death of 5 Russian soldiers and 10 Cumanian soldiers. As a result, mandatory conscription would be controversially mandated by President Wassily Leontief starting in 1953.

The geopolitical situation in North Asia (1960)

Around this time, the Moscow Project would also be launched with the intention of Russia developing its own atomic weapons program to deter neighboring rivals from attacking the Russian border. Russia would test its first nuclear weapon, known as Lvov-1, on 17 April 1954 in northern Siberia. Three years later, Persia would detonate its own nuclear bomb in 1957, establishing both countries as nuclear powers in the region. While Persia and Russia would not directly fight, both countries would use allies in the region to fight proxy wars and skirmishes. Russian aligned Kirghizia would fight a war against Persian-backed Transoxiana from 1954 to 1956 in what is now known as the Kirghiz-Transoxianan War. Following the Persian-German Split in 1961, border skirmishes between Russia and Persia's Central Asian proxies would die down as Persia became increasingly outmatched by Russia and its GTO military support, with Persia not wanting to provoke a global nuclear war.

Chinese soldiers in the Gobi Desert near the border of Kirghizia (July 1975)

While border skirmishes and tensions with Persia would die down by the 1960s, Russia's relations with China would remain steadily hostile throughout the majority of the Cold War. Ever since the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists took over China in 1901, the Russian Empire and later republic would fight a series of border skirmishes from the 1910s up until the start of the Fourth Great War forced both countries to join the Allies and cease hostilities. While the skirmishes stopped throughout the 1940s, they would resume again in the early 1950s. On 8 April 1952, Chinese troops would attack a Russian garrison near the city of Pogranichny, killing 2 and injuring 3 Russian soldiers. Any tenuous diplomatic relations between the countries would deteriorate, with Russia recalling its ambassador in the country the following day. From 1950 to 1970, Russian and Chinese troops would clash a total of 11 times and resulting in the death of 312 cumulative deaths on both sides.

"If the Chinese collectivists are foolish enough to start a war against brave and free Russia, we will turn Nanjing into a crater, and I will have absolutely no regrets over it!" - President Alisa Rosenbaum in a private conversation with Defense Minister Issa Pliyev

With China testing its first nuclear bomb in 1971, concerns over the border skirmishes between two nuclear powers were very widespread. In 1972, the League to Enforce Peace would attempt to bring both sides into negotiations, but these efforts fell through following a vicious border skirmish between the two countries in April of that year. After another decade of intense border skirmishes, a war would erupt between the two countries on 10 November 1977. The Sino-Russian War greatly alarmed the world as it was the first time two nuclear states were in direct military confrontation with one another. Chinese artillery shelled Russian border cities while Russian forces would advance into China and occupy the Daxing'anling Prefecture. After roughly 3 months of fighting, United States President Richard Lugar was able to broker a peace deal known as the Old Saybrook Accords signed by diplomats in Old Saybrook, Saybrook on 8 January 1978. The accords saw China renounce its claims to Vladivostok in exchange for 5 billion dollars in aid and reparations from Russia for the killing of Chinese soldiers.

Following the ascension of Deng Xiaoping to the position of Number One Boxer in China, the two countries would work towards restoring diplomatic relations. Deng's successor, Lee Kuan Yew, would drastically increase these efforts as part of his reforms within China. Relations were formally restored on 10 June 1988, thus ending the decades long border skirmishes that had plagued both countries.

The Rosenbaum presidency and political polarization (1972-1985)

Going into the 1970s, Russia would experience a period of political instability after incumbent President Mikhail Yasnov would be implicated in a corruption scandal. Investigations found that members of Yasnov's cabinet used their positions of power to personally enrich themselves. The Yasnov corruption scandal threw the entire Popular Socialist Party into disarray, but Yasnov still announced his intention to run for a third term in 1972 as there were no formal charges ever brought against him. The weakened state of the Popular Socialists and distrust towards the government at its highest in decades, it was a perfect storm for an outsider candidate.

Alisa Rosenbaum, President of Russia (1972-1980)

Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum was an outsider to the Russian political system, having gained fame in the 1940s as an author and free market fundamentalist. While being involved in political campaigns, she would formally enter politics herself following her election to the State Duma in 1960. Representing the right-wing faction of the Progressive Party, Rosenbaum would often criticize the more moderate elements of her party for "capitulating to socialism." Disgruntled with other prospective candidates, Rosenbaum announced her long-shot bid for the presidency on 6 August 1971. In her speeches, Rosenbaum often decried "collectivists, communists, bums, and other forces destroying Russia." Her inflamatory rhetoric made her a lot of enemies in both the Progressive and Popular Socialist parties. On 5 November 1972, Rosenbaum would defeat Yasnov with 54% of the popular vote in one of the nastiest election campaigns in Russian history. Rosenbaum was inaugurated a month later.

A loud-mouthed and uncompressing fiscal conservative, President Rosenbaum found herself constantly at odds with the Constituent Assembly regarding issues of financing government programs. Since the Kerensky administration, the Russian railways had remained nationalized and directly under the control of the Russian government. Rosenbaum decried the nationalized railroads as "monetary black holes" and for "suppressing the true entrepreneurial power of railroad tycoons and businessmen who helped build this country." Throughout much of her early presidency, Rosenbaum would fight the Constituent Assembly to privatize the railroads. This would eventually happen following the passage of the Railroad Privatization Act in 1973. Rosenbaum also pushed to cut back welfare programs, claiming that they were "rewarding laziness" and actively forbidding the virtue of hard work in Russian society. Plans to cut the welfare state were ultimately less successful than her railroad initiatives, mostly due to strong pushback of Duma members from urban constituencies.

The uncompromising nature of Rosenbaum's presidency marked a period of intense political polarization within the country. Rosenbaum had led the Progressive Party in taking a rightward shift and a more openly antagonistic relationship with the other parties in the Constituent Assembly. This period of Russian politics was marked by political gridlock, inflammatory rhetoric, and a slight increase in political violence. Despite this polarization, Rosenbaum would ride a wave of moderate economic success to a second term in 1976.

Late 20th and 21st centuries (1985-present)

Despite not holding the presidency for over 12 years, the Popular Socialists retained majorities in the State Duma and State Council throughout various periods in the 1970s. Mikhail Gorbachev, a charismatic politician from Moscow, would clench the Popular Socialist nominee at the 1980 party convention. Due to declining health, Rosenbaum opted not to run for re-election in 1980, greatly benefitting Gorbachev's campaign. With the moderates and social conservatives battling for control over the Progressive Party, Mikhail Gorbachev easily defeated Progressive Party nominee Viktor Chernomyrdin in the 1980 election with 71% of the popular vote.

Gorbachev meets Deng Xiaoping, the Number One Boxer of China (1986)

Unlike the polarization of his predecessor, Gorbachev emphasized unity and compassion as part of his political agenda which included increased funding for welfare programs, overhauling Russian highway and railroad infrastructure, and a policy of détente with Persia, Cossackia, and China. Gorbachev, originating from a rural village in what is now Cossackia, made tackling rural poverty a top priority for his administration. While the overall quality of life improved in Russia during the Russian Economic Miracle, rural portions of the country still lagged behind urban centers in terms of poverty reduction, job opportunities, and adequate infrastructure. The passage of the Rural Russians Act in 1982 would be successful in cutting rural child poverty in half throughout the 1980s. Gorbachev's popularity would result in him being re-elected in 1984 and 1988, serving as president for a total of 12 years. Another big accomplishment of Gorbachev was increased Russian involvement in the Space Race, leading to Russia establishing colonies on Venus and Minerva during this time period. In 1988, the Russian people approved a new constitution via referendum, which limited the powers of the president and established a semi-presidential system, creating the position of Prime Minister in the process.

President Martin Shakkum in 2000

Gorbachev's successor, Yevgeny Primakov, would continue his policy of detente and would oversee the end of the Cold War. Primakov made history as the first Russian president to step foot in Persia on 5 April 1994. Primakov became the most-travelled Russian president, visiting a total of 14 countries during his tenure as president. His successor, Martin Shakkum, pursued a transformative political agenda. Shakkum championed many of Gorbachev's social policies, ultimately leading to same-sex unions being legalized in 2004. However, Shakkum pursued a policy of fiscal conservatism, a sharp departure from the social democratic economic policy championed by the Popular Socialist Party.

Icon used for the 2012 Moscow Summer Olympics

Despite an economic downturn in the late 2000s, the Russian economy would continue to experience steady economic growth. Due to the advent of nuclear fusion and worldwide phasing out of oil production, the Russian economy began to gradually shift from being oil export-oriented and instead shifted towards Russia's burgeoning telecommunication, nuclear energy, aerospace, agriculture, and tourism sectors. In 2012, Russia would host the Summer Olympics in Moscow. Russia also emerged as a large player in space exploration during this time. helping provide significant financial contribution to the Alf Landon Research Facility on Mercury during the colony's opening phase.

Controversially, Gorbachev would run for a non-consecutive 4th term after being out of office for 20 years. This resulted in the Progressive Party attempting to push through a term-limit constitutional amendment, though this effort failed. Despite this failure, Progressive Party candidate Boris Nemtsov won the 2016 election and led Russia into the 2020s. In 2023, Nemtsov announced he would not run for re-election, opening the field for various politicians to run in the 2024 election.

Government and politics

The Constituent Assembly Building in Moscow

Branches of government

As of the 1988 constitution, the Russian Republic is officially a federal semi-presidential constitutional republic. This means that the Russian President, elected every 4 years, serves as the head of state while the Prime Minister of Russia, elected by the Constituent Assembly after parliamentary elections, serves as the head of government. Unlike other republics in which the president is largely symbolic, the Russian president still has veto power over the Constituent Assembly/Prime Minister, serves as the commander-in-chief of the Russian military, and serves as the Chief Diplomat of the Republic during overseas visits.

Kazimir Gilovich Kahele, the current Prime Minister of Russia (2021-present)

The Legislative Branch is the Constituent Assembly and is divided into two chambers: the State Duma (lower house), and the State Council (upper house). Bills can be drafted and passed by either house of the legislature, but most legislation tends to be proposed in the lower house. Historically, all members of the State Duma were elected but about 45% of the State Council would be appointed by the President with the approval of the State Duma. However, the 1960 constitution reformed the State Council, having all its members be elected by popular vote. Unlike the United States, which requires legislation to pass through both chambers of the legislature to reach the president, the Russian Constitution only requires a bill to pass through the State Duma, with the State Council voting on whether it would like to hear debates on a particular piece of legislation or to allow it to go straight to the president.

The Russian Supreme and Criminal Court building in Moscow

The Judicial Branch of the Russian Republic consists of the Supreme and Criminal Court of Russia which handles both private and criminal law. In Russia, the decision of the Supreme Court is final. However, since Russia is a member of the European Community, cases ruled on by Russia's Supreme Court can be appealed to the European Court of Human Rights. Justices are appointed by the President and approved by the Constituent Assembly but must retire when they reach the mandatory retirement age of 65 as mandated by the Russian constitution.

Federal subdivisions

Russia's federalist structure means it is divided into over 60 federal subdivisions. A vast majority of these subdivisions are classified as Oblasts. Oblasts tend to be majority-Russian and have their own governors and regional constituent assemblies. Oblasts are allowed to set local laws regarding education curriculum or regional holidays, but these decisions could be overturned through legislation passed by the federal Constituent Assembly. The most populated Oblast is the Moscow Oblast with over 30 million people residing within it.

A map of Russia and its subdivisions

Some ethnic minorities within Russia operate autonomous oblasts or republics, which tend to be majority-minority and exercise a greater degree of autonomy compared to their oblast counterparts. Oblasts are able to set their own official language as well as most domestic policy. However, they too are still subject to the authority of the federal government in Moscow.

Russia's extraterrestrial colonies on Minerva and Venus are the newest type of subdivision within the country. Due to the limited resources and population within these territories, they are directly governed by the federal government in Moscow and through the Russian space agency, Roscosmos.

Political parties

Main article: Political parties in Russia

Since the 1917 Revolution, Russia has been a two-party system largely dominated by the Progressive Party and the Popular Socialist Party, with several minor parties represented in the Constituent Assembly.

A Cuman woman casts a vote in the 1984 Russian presidential election (Novosibirsk)

The Progressive Party of Russia is a center-right political party founded in 1912. Initially a constitutional monarchist party during the Tsarist era, it emerged as a dominant liberal conservative party in the early republic. Following its merger with the Constitutional Democratic Party in 1925, it became a more centrist, big tent party. Following the presidency of Alisa Rosenbaum, the party began to shift solidly towards the right on economic positions. While the party is solidly right-wing on economic issues, it remains a big tent on social issues with both social liberals and social conservatives present within the party. The party currently controls the presidency despite not having a majority in either legislative chamber.

The Popular Socialist Party, formally known as the Labourist Popular Socialist Party, is a center-left to left-wing political party in Russia. Alongside the Progressives, they are a dominant party within Russia's two-party system. Founded as an agrarian democratic socialist party with its roots in the 1917 revolution, the party gained prominence under the presidency of Alexander Kerensky. As Russia industrialized and the country's middle class grew, the party began to shift more towards social democratic and social liberal politics. The party currently holds a majority in the State Duma and a slim majority in the State Council.

Foreign relations

Russia (pictured, far right) holding its seat on the League to Enforce Peace Security Council

A member of the Global Treaty Organization and a permanent member of the League to Enforce Peace Security Council, Russia is recognized as a great power by several geopolitical analysts. Within the GTO, Russia's closest allies are often considered to be the United States and Rhomania. The United States has been a strategic partner of Russia since the 1940s and both countries have mutually benefitted from trade, joint military drills, and intercultural exchange in what is now referred to as the "Special Relationship." Rhomania and Russia have been interacting with one another since the days of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Kievan Rus. As a result, they remain countries that are interlinked culturally and share a lot of mutual soft power through their shared religion, culture, and military alliances.

While relations with its neighbors were traditionally hostile, Russia reconciled with Lublin, Cumania, Alaska, and Transoxiana during the 20th century. Today, Russia remains Lublin's largest trading partner and a key trading partner with both Transoxiana and Cumania. Russia is in free association with both Gavayi and Alaska due to their shared language and culture. Immigration between Russia, Alaska, and Gavayi has also helped to strengthen direct economic ties between the three countries. In recent years, Russia has strengthened its ties with countries in Muqaddas and Africa such as Novanglia, Puelmapu, Mali, and Vistara.

A Russian soldier patrolling the border with Cossackia (2020)

Despite strong relations with many countries in the international community, Russia still has poor relations with many of its immediate neighbors. While there is no direct conflict between the two, relations with China still remain tense. Russia has accused China of interfering in Russian elections and in the political affairs of neighboring countries such as Transoxiana. In turn, China has accused Russia of ''imperialist expansion'' into East Asia due to its large ports on Vladivostok and the island of Sakhalin. The opening of a Russian naval base in Yokosuka, Japan on 7 May 2021 only furthered tensions between the two countries.

Relations with neighboring Cossackia have also not improved following the end of fascism in the country. Cossackia still maintains a large troop presence on the Russian border and both countries have gotten into tense border skirmishes throughout the 21st century, with the most recent one being in 2017. Persia has provided Cossackia with weaponry and has signed a mutual defense pact with Cossackia in 2019. As a result, Russo-Persian relations have also deteriorated in recent years.

Armed forces

A Sukhoi Su-57 fifth generation fighter jet of the Aerospace Forces.

The Russian Armed Forces are divided into the Ground Forces, Navy and the Aerospace Forces, plus the independent Strategic Nuclear Forces and the Paratroop Forces. As of 2021, the military have around a million active-duty personnel, which is the world's fifth-largest, and about 2–20 million reserve personnel. It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be drafted for a year of service in the Armed Forces, however they have been able to object and be exempted from service on moral, legal or religious grounds since 1970.

The country is recognised as a nuclear armed state. In 2022 it was estimated that Russia possessed around 5,000 nuclear warheads, just under half of the world’s total and the second largest stockpile behind that of the United States’ nuclear arsenal. The country is also one of the few to operate strategic bomber planes, and has the second largest fleet of nuclear submarines. Russia maintains the third-highest military expenditure, spending approximately $86 million in 2021, or around 4.1% of the country’s GDP. In 2021 it was the world's second-largest arms exporter, and had a large and entirely indigenous defence industry, producing most of its own military equipment.

Economy

Red Square in Moscow, the second largest shopping district in the world behind Fort Dearborn's Magnificent Mile

At over 18.1 trillion dollars, Russia remains the second largest economy in the world behind the United States. Since the 1950s, Russia emerged as an economic superpower with high levels of economic development. This development was initially supported by the large reserves of crude oil that the country had, but Russia's economy has since shifted towards a diversified economy that remains competitive in multiple sectors.

Technology and energy

The Kozloduy Nuclear Fusion Power Plant in Bulgaria was financed by Russian nuclear fusion firms.

A leader in nuclear fusion, Russia has remained the largest economic exporter. In 2023 alone, Russia exported 212 billion dollars' worth of nuclear fusion reactors. While crude oil used to be Russia's largest export, the nuclear revolution of the 1950s ultimately led to nuclear fusion surpassing oil as Russia's dominant energy sector in 1967. Novatek Nuclear remains the largest energy company in Russia and the world, with headquarters in Timbuktu, Fort Dearborn, and New Amsterdam.

Since the 1970s, another big sector in the Russian economy has been technology and manufacturing. Russia hosts many regional headquarters for multinational technology companies such as AT&T, Tectoy Lavradoria, Yahoo!, and Jeliba Futuristics. Many prominent international tech companies, such as Tetris Paradox LLC and the 1C Company have also originated in Russia. Despite its large size, the Russian technology sector is still only the third largest in the world, trailing the United States and Japan.

Trade

Map of the European Community, of which Russia greatly benefits from interborder trade

With membership in various intergovernmental economic unions, Russia is the largest trading nation in the world. Roughly 25% of all funds used in international trade are in Russian rubles. Russia currently remains the largest economy in the European Community, the Orthodox Christian Economic Community, and the Russo-Pacific Compact of Free Association. Despite maintaining trade deficits with some of its partners, Russia on average maintains vast trade surpluses, with a record surplus of 270 billion dollars being reached in 2015.

As of 2023, Russia's 10 largest trade partners are: the United States, Alaska, France, Japan, Korea, Lublin, Rhomania, Mali, Germany, and Bharat.

Transportation

Rail, automobile, and air transportation are all crucial to the flow and function of the Russian economy. The Trans-Siberian Railway remains the largest high-speed rail network in the world, connecting distant metropolitan areas such as London and Paris to the farthest reaches of Siberia. Russia is the largest manufacturer of train cars in the world, trading them to international train operators such as Coltrak, the Pennsylvania Railroad, Siemens Mobility, and the Japan Railways Group. Russia largely electrified their rail system in the 1960s as part of its efforts to phase off crude oil dependency.

The road sign for European Highway 101, which runs through Russia and Ukraine

Russia operates several highways as part of the European Highway System. Automobile transportation remains the second most popular form of intercity travel in the Russian Republic behind railroads. It is estimated that over 4 million tourists travelled from the European Community to Russia using cars in 2018 alone. There still remains issues of potholes and unkempt roads in some of the more rural parts of the country, such as Siberia.

Air travel is crucial to Russian international trade and the country's tourism industry. In August 2021, 14 million people travelled in and out of Russia on airplane. As a result, the Russian government has undergone massive infrastructure campaigns to maintain airports. The country's largest airport by passenger volume is Alexander Kerensky International Airport in Moscow, which carried a peak of 40,093,000 passengers throughout 2017.

Demographics

Ethnic groups

Orthodox Jews gather on Yom Kippur in Moscow (2008)

Russia is a multinational country with many subnational entities associated with different minorities. Within Russia, there are over 200 recognized ethnic groups. As of the 2020 census, the largest ethnic group in the country by far were Russians, who make up 72% of the country's population. After Russians, 20% of the country were ethnic minorities whose indigenous homelands lay within Russia's borders (Ashkenazi Jews, Volga Bulgarians, Cumanians, Kipchaks, Indigenous Siberians, Mongolic people, and the Koryo-saram). Many of these indigenous people within Russia operate semi-autonomous republics that grant ethnic minorities a level of self-governance within Russia's borders. The largest of these include Volga Bulgaria within European Russia and the Republic of Sakha in northern Siberia. While historically oppressed in Russia, the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1924 has allowed for non-Russians to gain significant political and economic power within the country.

Former Prime Minister Kira Sawant is the descendant of Bharati immigrants to Russia

Since the Russian economic boom in the 1950s, large waves of immigrants would come to Russia in pursuit of work and new lives. Those with full or partial immigrant ancestry make up a total of 8% of Russia's population. Notable immigration waves include those who came from England, Bharat, Rhomania, Mexica, Naomh Lazarus, Korea, and Lualaba. In recent years, the largest immigrant communities in Russia have come from fellow Russian-speaking countries such as Alaska and Gavayi. Immigrants within Russia have gone on to hold significant positions of power in the Russian economy and politics. Immigration has been welcomed by Russian social liberals, but pushback to immigration has been a proponent of right-wing populism within Russia.

Religion

According to the 2020 census, 56% of the Russian population identified as Christian (47% Orthodox, 9% other Christian), with the largest church being the Russian Orthodox Church. Despite the high percentage of people identifying as Orthodox Christian, a survey conducted by the Timbuktu Gazette's Russia office found that only 2 out 10 self-identified Russian Orthodox Christians attend church regularly. The second largest religious affiliation was areligious/agnostics which accounted for 30% of the population. Russia, having the largest Jewish population in the world, also has a large practicing Jewish community. In 2020, 8% of the Russian population identified as practicing Judaism.

West of the Ural Mountains and in the oblasts bordering Central Asia, Manichaeism remains a dominant religion. Spreading from the Persian Empire to Central Asia in the 3rd century CE, many of the Central Asian peoples residing in Russia's border adopted Manichaeism as their religion. As of the 2020 census, 5% of Russia's population identified as Manichaeist. The remaining 1% of Russia's population identified as practicing another religion (Tengrism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Shamanism, etc.)

A statue outside the Moscow State University depicting "model students"

Education

Russia has an adult literacy rate of 100% and grants free education to all of its citizens. Education is compulsory up until the age of 18 but becomes optional once students reach the undergraduate level in university. While regional oblasts are allowed to set some aspects of the education curriculum, the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia ultimately has the final say on funding and standards set nationwide. The Moscow State University is the largest and oldest university in the country and remains one of the top universities in Europe. In 1930, the Justinian Scholarship was established, a highly competitive scholarship that allows students from Orthodox Christian Economic Community (OCEC) member-states to pursue a graduate education in Russia free-of-charge. Since 1970, the Justinian Scholarship has been managed by the OCEC's Orthodox Christian Education Fund which receives roughly 60% of its budget from Russia alone.

Gender and sexuality

Decriminalized since 1986, gender and sexuality has played a complex role within Russian society throughout the country's long history. English poet George Turberville, who visited Muscovy in 1568, was shocked about the open homosexuality among the Russian peasantry. Under Peter the Great's reforms, there was a ban on male homosexuality, with Article 995 of the Russian criminal code punishing male homosexuality with deportations to Siberia for up to 5 years. Under the Russian Republic, homosexuality would eventually be decriminalized in 1986, legal recognition of transgender identity would occur in 1996, and civil unions would be legalized in 2004. While some oblasts and cities have legalized same-sex marriage, the lobbying efforts of the Russian Orthodox Church and the religious right have prevented federal recognition of same-sex marriage from passing the Constituent Assembly.

Lesbian wedding including a trans woman in Saint Petersburg (2014)

Prior to the 2000 census, same-sex couples in the Russian Republic were counted by acting for the respondent's relationship to the "main householder", whose sex was also asked. Since the 2010 census, sexual orientation has been an optional question asked on the form. During the 2000 census, 1.1% of Russian citizens openly identified as being gay, lesbian, bisexual, and/or transgender. As of the 2020 census, the number of openly LGBT Russian people has gone up to 4.2%.

As of the 2020 census, women make up 51% of Russia's population. Historically, women have been underrepresented in Russian politics and the economy. Experiencing various waves of feminism, Russia would allow women to operate their own bank accounts in the 1940s, decriminalize abortion in the 1970s, and elect women to various levels of government. However, contemporary feminists do note that there are some discrepancies in terms of workforce representation that still exist into the present.

Culture

Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, a famous Russian musical composer

Art and literature

Due to its transcontinental status, Russia's culture has significant influence from both the East and the West. Historically, it was Russian philosophers and writers who greatly influenced European philosophy and thought as a whole. Russia has also been a significant cultural contributor in the fields of classical music, chess, ballet, painting, and sport.

Similar to other East Slavic peoples, much of Russian folklore is rooted in the pagan beliefs of the ancient Slavs. Many of these Russian fairytales were adapted into feature-length movies by famous directors such as Aleksandr Ptushko and Steven Spielberg. The early years of the Russian Republic (1920s to 1940s) are often considered the "golden years of Russian folklore" due to the new revolution reconciling with Russia's cultural past.

Sports

The Russian Men's Curling Team at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Padania

Sports remains a big part of Russian culture. During international events such as the Olympics, Russia remains very dominant in Curling, Association Football, and fencing. On several occasions, Russia has brought home the Gold Medal in curling such as in the 1998 and 2006 Winter Olympics. Russia has also produced the most winners of the World Chess Championship.

Cuisine

Another big aspect of Russian culture is the country's unique and diverse cuisine. This cuisine consists of Russian ethnic cuisine as well as the various dishes and cuisine prepared by Russia's various ethnic minorities. Hot and cold soups are a staple of Russian cuisine, consisting of Okroshka, Tyurya, Shchi (cabbage soup), and Borscht. Porridge is also a very important dish within Russian cuisine. Russian cuisine also has many meat-based dishes such as Shashlik, Beef Stroganoff, and various seafood delacacies. Pirozhki remains a popular dessert in the country. Immigration from other countries has also influenced Russian cuisine, with the immigration waves from Gavayi resulting in Kālua-style cooking becoming popular within Russia.